WOOD'S 
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ImiNDlANRELlClONsIj 





THE GREAT INDIAN RELIGIONS. 



1 The World's Religions " Series. 



1. Primitive Religions : An Introduction to the 

Study of Religions, with an account of the 
Religious Beliefs of Uncivilised Peoples. 

2. The Great Indian Religions : An Account of 

Brahmanism, Hinduism, Buddhism, and 
Zoroastrianism. 

3. Mohammedanism, and other Religions of 

Mediterranean Countries. 

4. History of Judaism and Christianity, in the 

light of Modern Research and Criticism. 



London: Waed, Lock, Bowden & Co. 



" Ube Motto's IRelioions " Series. 



THE GEEAT INDIAN EELMONS 

BEING A POPULAR ACCOUNT OF 

BRAHMANISM, HINDUISM, BUDDHISM, 
AND ZOROASTRIANISM. 



Wai\ Recounts of % Was antr o%z gnMan Satreir §5ooIis, 
Pi%aiam, eta 



G. T. BETTANY, M.A., B.So., 

Author of " T7ie TForld's In7iaHtants," M li/^ 0/ Charles Darwin," etc, 



WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS. 



WARD, LOCK, BOWDEN AKD CO., 

LONDON: WARWICK HOUSE, SALISBURY SQUARE, E.O. 

NEW YORK.: BOND STREET. 

MELBOURNE: ST. JAMES'S STREET. SYDNEY: YORK STREET. 

1892 
(All rights reserved.) 



<&>* 

^ 












PREFACE. 






IN recent years there lias been an enormous amount of 
study of- tlie religions of India and the allied people 
of ancient Bactria and Persia ; and we may now form 
definite opinions as to many questions which, in previous 
ages were not understood. There can be little doubt of 
the great, antiquity of the religious ideas represented 
by the Yedas, extending probably to a thousand years 
before Christ. We see in them that the early belief in 
numerous spirits superintending departments of nature 
had become crystallised into poetry of a high order in 
the hands of a series of religious poets ; and we realise 
too the common origin of numerous ideas about religion 
and the gods which both the early Aryan Hindus and the 
Greeks had. We find in them a worship of the Powers of 
Nature personified, which was in many ways of an ele- 
vating nature. Ideas of immortality and a future life 
are by no means absent. Later on, we find expressions 
pointing to the existence of ancestor worship and the 
tendency to deification of departed heroes. 

In still later times the remarkable attainments of many 
Hindus, both in philosophy and in legislation, were dis- 
played in such books as the Brahmanas, the Upanishads, 
and the laws of Manu ; and by this time the Brahmans 
had made themselves of vital importance as a religious 
caste, without whom the Hindus could not attain or 
keep ceremonial and religious purity. Henceforward 
the Hindu system presents a remarkable combination of 



vi PREFACE. 

degeneration into polytheism -with degrading rites, and 
of movements aiming at elevation and reform. The 
later of these have been Sikhism and the Brahmo Somaj, 
to which considerable reference will be made in the 
following pages. 

Buddhism is really an offshoot of early Brahmanism, 
and was in part a revolt against the iron tyranny of the 
Brahmans, in part a revolt against polytheism and a re- 
action towards unbelief in any knowledge of the gods or 
certainty of immortality. The idea of seeking absorp- 
tion in the Infinite was however conjoined with a practical 
moral discipline that long gave Buddhism an enormous 
vitality and power of increase. Later, like most religions, 
it became degraded, practically polytheistic, and full of 
meaningless or superstitious rites. In power to develop 
and influence people for good it appears now to be far 
inferior to Hinduism. 

Zoroastrianism was a simpler yet a kindred system, 
reversing early Vedism in some curious features. In its 
simple worship of God by the symbol of fire it had a 
lofty side. In its conception of a dual government of the 
universe by good and evil powers it contributed most 
importantly to world-philosophy. It never appears to 
have degenerated like Hinduism, for Mohammedanism 
violently expelled it, and was manifestly a higher religion. 
Until modern days its few surviving representatives were 
sunk in ignorance even of their own religion ; but a re- 
vival of learning has taken place among the Parsees, 
which bids fair to keep their religion alive in its purer 
aspects for a long time. 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER 

I. The Early Vedic Religion 



II. The Brahmanism of the Codes . c t 

III. Modern Hinduism. I. . 

IV. Modern Hinduism. II. . 

V. Life of Buddha ...... 

VI. The Buddhist Doctrines and Sacred Books 

VII. The Buddhist Order . ♦ * « . 

Vin. Modern Buddhism. I. 

IX. Modern Buddhism. II. . 

X. Jainism . . . . 

XI. Zoroaster and the Zend-Avesta . 

XII. The Zoroastrian Books — Mithraism 

XIII. Modern Parseeism • 



1 
31 

56 
83 
118 
146 
162 
175 
204 
238 
246 
265 
278 




BRAHMA (FROM A NATIVE PICTURE). 

CHAPTER I. 

Analogies to Greek and Roman Religion— Date of the Rig-Veda, anterior to 
writing— Language of Rig-Veda— Religious basis— The earliest hymns- 
Worship of powers of Nature personified— Dyaus and Prithivi (heaven 
and earth)— The origin of things— Mi tra andVaruna— Indra, the god of 
the clear blue sky— The Maruts, or storm-gods— The sun-gods, Surya 
and Savitri— Pushan— Soma, the Indian Bacchus or Dionysus— Ushas, 
the dawn goddess— Agni, the god of fire— Tvashtri— The Asvins— Brah- 
manaspati— Vishnu— Yama, and a future life— Virtues rewarded by 
heaven— Future punishment— Transition to monotheism and pantheism 
— Visvakarman— Absence of later Hindu doctrines— Organisation of early 
Hindus— Morals— The other Vedas— The Brahmanas— Human sacrifice— 
Animal sacrifice— Tradition of a flood— Immortality— Idea of the sun's 
course— Origin .of caste— Self-assertion of Brahmans— Nature of the 
Brahmanas — Household sacrifices — Purification — Fasting — Establish- 
ment of sacrificial fires— The Upanishads— The syllable Om— The origin 
of the world in ether— The Atman, or self-existent— The Svetas-vatara— 
Transmigration of souls— Purpose of the Upanishads. 

WHATEVER may have been the history of the 
Aryans, by whom the Vedas were produced, pre- 
vious to their entering India, it is certain that when they 

1 B 



2 THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION. 

did so, long before Buddhism took its rise, in the sixth 
Analogies to centni T B - c -? ^ ie J ^ m ^ developed religious ideas 
Greek and and conceptions which present singular analo- 
reSSon £ ies anc ^ similarities to those which appear 
to be most primitive among the Greeks ; and 
which suggest, if they do not prove, that the Euro- 
pean and Hindu Aryans sprang from a common stock. 
When we find their divinities termed " devas," or " the 
shining ones,' 7 and recognise the same word in the 
Latin Dens, divinity ; when we compare the Dyaush- 
pitar (Heaven-Father) of Sanskrit, with Jupiter or Dies- 
piter of Rome, and the Zeus of Greece ; Varuna, the 
encompassing sky in Sanskrit, with Ouranos Uranus in 
Greek ; and many other like words, we cannot help realis- 
ing that, strange as it might seem at first, Brahmanism 
and Greek and Latin religion sprang from a similar 
source. And it is not very important which is the older. 
"We know that the Hindu sacred books, the Yedas, — at 
any rate some of them, — are among the oldest of extant 
human compositions, and exhibit to us some of the earliest 
human ideas that were handed down by writing. 1 

The best opinions place the date of the Rig- Veda some- 
where between 800 and 1200 b.c. The collection consists 
of ten books, containing altogether 1,017 hymns ; eight 
Date of the out of ten books begin with hymns addressed 
Rig-veda. to Agni, and others addressed to Indra follow. 
It appears probable that at least two distinct generations 
or series of .authors composed them, the ]ater being more 
imitative and reflective ; and it is probable that some of 
the hymns date from a period earlier even than 1200 b.c. 
In the whole series there is no reference to anything con- 
Anterior to nected with writing, and this suggests that they 
writing-. are relatively anterior to the Book of Exodus, 
where " books'' and writing are distinctly mentioned. 
Even long after the period of the Rig- Veda, writing 

1 See Muir, "Original Sanskrit Texts" (M..) ; Max Miiller, " History of 
Ancient Sanskrit Literature," "Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Ee- 
ligion," " Sacred Books of the East " (M. M.) ; Sir Monier Williams, 
"Indian Wisdom," "Hinduism" (M. W.) ; Sir W. W. Hunter, " India;" 
H. H. Wilson's works. 



RELIGIOUS BASIS OF RIG-VEDA. 3 

is never mentioned. Thus we must ascribe the preser- 
vation of these wonderful collections entirely to memory, 
which is, no doubt, equal to the task. Many years, we 
know, are still regularly spent by Brahmans in the slow, 
methodical learning and repetition of their sacred litera- 
ture ; and there is every sign of this habit having been 
handed down from a period when no other means of 
preserving the Vedas existed. In ancient compositions, 
later than the Rig- Veda, we are told in detail every event 
in the life of a Brahman, but there is no mention of his 
learning to write. It is not till we come to the Laws of 
Maim that writing is spoken of. 

The very language of the Rig- Veda is a further con- 
firmation of its antiquity. The words are so difficult of 
explanation as to have given rise to extensive Language of 
commentaries ever since. "When the words are Rig-Veda, 
known, great differences of opinion arise as to how they 
are to be connected together, or what idea they represent. 
Often the most puerile or irrelevant things (to us) are 
interspersed among the loftiest sentiments, and great 
verbosity alternates with the most terse and pregnant 
aphorisms. This precludes the idea of single authorship 
of any considerable portions. In fact, early Hindu litera- 
ture was not concerned about authorship in the modern 
sense. The word Veda, meaning '-knowledge," clearly 
refers to Divine knowledge, imagined as proceeding like 
breath from the self-existent Spirit, and inspiring a class 
of sages called Rishis ; and thus it is held to this day to 
be absolutely infallible. 

The general form of the Vedas is that of the simplest 
lyrical poetry, with a not very regular metrical flow ; 
and the matter is almost exclusively religious. Religious 
This fact is regarded as due largely to the basis * 
character of the people. " No great people, surely," said 
Prof. "Whitney, "ever presented the spectacle of a develop- 
ment more predominantly religious ; none ever grounded 
its whole fabric of social and political life more absolutely 
on a religious basis ; none ever meditated more deeply 
and exclusively on things supernatural ; none ever rose, 
on the one hand, higher into the airy regions of a purely 



4 THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION. 

speculative creed, or sank, on the other, deeper into 
degrading superstitions — the two extremes to which such 
a tendency naturally leads. " 

Although the earliest Vedic hymns are so ancient, they 
must have been preceded by an indefinitely long period 

The earliest of growth and development of the race, for the 
hymns, language is fixed, complex, full-grown ; the idea 
of gods was fully developed, indeed their number seems 
to have been fixed as thirty-three, who are described as 
all great and old, and are besought not to lead their 
votaries far from the paths of their fathers. It may be 
said generally that in the earliest hymns each god that 
is manifested is for the time being contemplated as 
supreme and absolute, and not limited by the powers of 
the rest. Max Mtiller says, "Each god is to the mind 
of the suppliant as good as all the gods. He is felt at the 
time as a real divinity, as supreme and absolute, in spite 
of the necessary limitations which, to our mind, a plural- 
ity of gods must entail on every single god." In fact the 
early Hindu of the Vedas was a worshipper of 
power? of "the powers of Nature personified, and capable 
Nature of being influenced by his praises, prayers, and 

person e . ac ^ ons> Their qualities are not precisely limited 
or distinguished from one another. While the gods are 
termed immortal, they are mostly not regarded as un- 
created or self-existent, but are often described as the 
offspring of heaven and earth. There is no uniformity, 
however, on this point. But there are numerous passages 
reconcilable with the view that some of these gods repre- 
sent deified ancestors, as where they are said to have 
acquired immortality by their acts, or their virtues, or 
by gift of Agni ; and it is even implied that the gods 
named were the successors of others previously existing. 
Thus we find Indra thus invoked, " Who made thy 
mother a widow ? What god was present in the fray, 
when thou didst slay thy father, seizing him by the 
foot?" and there is no doubt that at times the gods are 
represented as being at war with one another. As to the 
powers and prerogatives of the gods, they are above all 
mortals, who can by no means frustrate their decrees, 



DYAUS AND PR IT HI VI. 



tliey will reward dutiful worshippers, and punish tlio 



negligent. 



Heaven and Earth, the progenitors of the gods, are 
represented by Dyaus and Prithivi. Hymns addressed to 
them include the following, " At the festivals (I worship) 








VAEUNA (FllOM A NATIVE PICTURE). 

with offerings, and celebrate the praises of Heaven and 
Earth, the promoters of righteousness, the great, D and 
the wise, the energetic, who, having gods for pritMvi 
their offspring, thus lavish, with the gods, the a ^ e e a a v r e t ^ 
choicest blessings, in consequence of our hymn. 
With my invocations I adore the thought of the beneficent 



6 THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION. 

Father, and that mighty inherent power of the Mother. 
The prolific Parents have made all creatures, and through 
their favours (have conferred) wide immortality on their 
offspring.' 7 ... So closely did the old Hindus approach 
the Greeks and Romans in their conceptions of Mother 
Earth and Father Heaven. In various passages, however, 
they are themselves spoken of as created, especially by 
Indra, who formed them out of his own body, and to 
The origin whom they do homage. How then w r as the 
of tMngs. origin of things imagined? The following ex- 
tract is from Sir Monier Williams's metrical rendering of 
one of the most remarkable Vedic hymns. 

' ; In the beginning there was neither nought nor aught, 
Then there was neither sky nor atmosphere above. 
What then enshrouded all this teeming universe? 
In the receptacle of what was it contained ? 
Was it enveloped in the gulf profound of water ? 
Then there was neither death nor immortality, 
Then there was neither day nor night, nor light nor darkness, 
Only the Existent One breathed calmly, self-contained. 
Then first came darkness hid in darkness, gloom in gloom. 
Next all was water, all a chaos indiscrete 
In which the One lay void, shrouded in nothingness." 

But Dr. Muir's literal translation gives a better notion 
of the original : " There was then neither nonentity nor 
entity ; there was no atmosphere nor sky above. What 
enveloped (all) ? "Where, in the receptacle of what (was 
it contained) ? Was it water, the profound abyss ? Death 
was not then, nor immortality ; there was no distinction 
of day or night. That One breathed calmly, self-sup- 
ported ; there was nothing different from, or above it. 
In the beginning darkness existed, enveloped in Darkness. 
All this was undistinguishable water. That One which 
lay void, and w r rapped in nothingness, was developed by 
the power of fervour. . . . Who knows, who here can 
declare, whence has sprung, whence, this creation? The 
gods are subsequent to the development of this (universe) ; 
who then knows whence it arose ? From what this 
creation arose, and whether (any one) made it or not, — he 
w T ho in the highest heaven is its ruler, he verily knows, or 



MITRA AND V A RUN A. 7 

(even) lie does not know."' From this we see that man in 
the ancient Veclic times had progressed almost, if not 
quite, as far in speculation as to the origin of things as 
the latest and most advanced of men, and with as little 
definite result. 

Leaving aside Aditi, apparently a personification of 
universal Nature or Being, the mother of the gods 
(Adityas), and capable of setting people free Mitra and 
from sin, but confessedly a difficult personifica- varuna. 
tion to explain, w r e pass to consider the characters of Mitra 
and Varuna, sons of Aditi, frequently associated, and often 
interpretable as clay and night. Varuna is sometimes 
represented as visible ; and the two deities are said to 
mount on a car drawn by horses, and soar to the highest 
empyrean, and behold all things in heaven and earth. 
Sometimes the sun is called the eye of Mitra and Varuna; 
and both jointly and separately they are termed king of 
all and universal monarch. Varuna has attributes like 
those of the Greek Ouranos, Latinised as Uranus. He 
made the sun to shine ; the wind is his breath ; river 
courses are hollowed out b} r his command, and the rivers 
pour their water into the one ocean, but never fill it. He 
knows the flight of birds in the sky, the path of ships 
on the ocean, the course of the far-travelling wind, and 
beholds all the sacred things that have been or shall be 
done. He beholds as if he were close at hand. Whatever 
two persons sitting together, devise, Varuna the king 
knows it, as a third. He has unlimited control of men, 
and is said to have a thousand remedies ; hence he is 
besought to show his deep and wide benevolence, and 
drive away evil and sin. Muir's verse translation, almost 
literal, is so attractive that it demands quotation. 

" The mighty Lord on high, our deeds as if at hand, espies ; 
The gods know all men do. though men would fain their deeds 

disguise. 
Whoever stands, whoever moves, or steals from place to place, 
Or hides him in his secret cell — the gods his movements trace. 
Wherever two together plot, and deem they are alone, 
King Varuna is there, a third, and all their schemes are known. 
This earth is his, to him belong those vast and boundless skies ; 
Both seas within him rest, and yet in that small pool he lies. : 



8 



THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION. 



Whoever far beyond the sky should think his way to wing, 

He could not there elude the grasp of Varuna the King. 

His spies descending from the skies glide all the world around, 

Their thousand eyes all-scanning sweep to earth's remotest bound. 

"Whate'er exists in heaven and earth, whatever beyond the skies, 

Before the eyes of Varuna, the King, unfolded lies. 

The ceaseless winkings all he counts of every mortal's eyes ; 

He wields this universal frame, as gamester throws his dice. 

Those knotted nooses which thou fling'st, O God, the bad to snare, 

All liars let them overtake, but all the truthful spare." 

In this and in many 
other passages Varuna 
appears as a moral Be- 
ing of high elevation. 
His forgiveness is im- 
plored by the Rishi or 
sacred bard ; and it is 
urged that wine, 
anger, dice, or 
thoughtlessness have 
led him astray. Very 
much the same at- 
tributes are ascribed 
to Mitra and Varuna 
together as to the 
latter alone. It will 
be seen later how 
closely the Zoroastrian 
Mithra resembles the 
Indian Mitra ; and 
there cannot be much 
doubt that this con- 
ception of the Deity 
existed previous to the separation of the Indian from the 
Iranian (Persian) branch. Later, Varuna became specially 
associated with the rule over water, and was solicited to 
send flood and rain from the shy. 
indra the Iudra and Agni, at first less important than 
god of the the foregoing, later grow in importance : they 
clear blue were born of parents, and have various striking 
qualities, and there are many features of 




INDRA (FROM A NATIVE PICTURE 



AGNL 9 

personal description given. Indra, god of the clear sky, 
is handsome, ruddy or golden-haired, with long arms, but 
has endless forms which he can assume at will. He rides 
on a shining golden car drawn by two golden horses, 
which move more swiftly than thought ; he has a thunder- 
bolt and other weapons, and is exhilarated by the libations 
of soma offered by his worshippers. In many passages the 
known effects of this favourite intoxicant were supposed 




AGNI (FROM MOOR'S "HINDU PANTHEON") 



to be felt by the gods. One of Inclra's especial functions 
is to encounter and vanquish the hostile demons of 
drought. As Muir says, the growth of these ideas is 
perfectly natural and intelligible to those who have wit- 
nessed the phenomena of the seasons in India. " Indra 
is thus at once a terrible warrior and a gracious friend, 
a gocl whose shafts deal destruction to his enemies while 
they bring deliverance and prosperity to his worshippers. 



The phenomena of thunder and 



lightning 



almost in- 



io THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION. 

evitably suggest the idea of a conflict between opposing 
forces ; even we ourselves often speak of the war or 
strife of the elements. The worshipper would at one 
time transform the fantastic shapes of the clouds into 
the chariots and horses of his god, and at another time 
would seem to perceive in their piled-up masses the cities 
and Castles which he was advancing to overthrow." Fre- 
quently Inclra is saluted as the god most powerful over 
the external world, " the most adorable of the adorable, 
the caster down of the unshaken, the most distinguished 
of living things." His worshippers are enjoined to have 
faith in him, and his power is asserted against denials of 
scepticism. He has a love for mortals, and is the helper 
of all men, a wall of defence and a deliverer, hearing and 
answering prayers. He is supposed to be capable of 
bestowing all kinds of temporal benefits, and in fact 
arbitrarily to control the destinies of men. Yet the sim- 
plicity of the worshipper is sometimes shown by prayers 
that the god will prove his prowess, and statements that 
" little has been heard of as done upon earth by one such 
as thou art." Indra is especially the champion and 
guardian of the Aryan Hindus against the darker races 
whom they subjected. It appears almost as if the con- 
ception of India expanded with the advance of the Aryans 
over India, while that of Varuna declined, who is more 
directly related to the early common Aryan belief before 
India was reached, and which appears also in the Zoroas- 
trian Ormuzcl and the Greek Ouranos. Another view 
regards Dj^aus as the god whom Inclra threw into the 
shade ; answering to the difference between the time 
when in the more elevated and mountainous regions of 
Central Asia, the brilliant radiance of heaven was the 
holiest and most desirable thing, and the later time, in 
India, when the rainy sky was most longed for, and its 
representation as Inclra became most popular. 

Passing by Parjanya, the thundering rain god, and 

Vayu, the wind, as less important deities, we find the 

The Maruts Maxuts, Rudras, or storm gods, many in num- 

or storm- ' ber, often associated with Indra and with Agni. 

gods. gome extracts from one of the hymns addressed 



PUS HAN. ii 

to them will give a better idea of the conceptions attached 
to them than a description. " They shake with, their 
strength all beings, even the strongest, on earth and in 
heaven. . . . They who confer power, the roarers, 
the devonrers of foes, they made winds and lightnings by 
their powers. The shakers milk the heavenly udders 
(clouds), roaming around they fill the earth with milk 
(rain). . . . Mighty you are, powerful, of wonderful 
splendour, firmly rooted like mountains, (yet) lightly 
gliding along ; — you chew up forests like elephants. 
. . . Give, Maruts, to the worshippers strength 
glorious, invincible in battle, brilliant, wealth-conferring, 
praiseworthy, known to all men. Let us foster our kith 
and kin during a hundred winters." (M. M.) 

The gods personifying the Sun, under different phases, 
are Surya and Savitri, who are praised and described in 
the Veda with appropriate epithets ; they are Th8 Sun _ 
drawn in cars by numerous horses, preserve all gods, surya 
things, enable men to perform their work, and and Savitri - 
see all things, both the good and the bad deeds of mortals. 
Surya is sometimes said to be dependent on Indra, who 
causes him to shine and prepares his path. Pushan is 
another solar deity, a guide on roads and jour- p 
neys, a protector and multiplier of cattle and 
of human possessions generally. A hymn addressed to 
him runs thus: " Conduct us, Pushan, over our road; 
remove distress, son of the deliverer; go on before us. 
Smite away from our path the destructive and injurious 
wolf which seeks after us. Drive away from our path 
the w r aylayer, the thief, the robber. ... god who 
bringest all blessings, and art distinguished by thy golden 
spear, make wealth easy of acquisition. Convey us past 
our opponents ; make our paths easy to traverse ; gain 
strength for us here." Another hymn more emphatically 
prays the god for personal favours : " Bring to us wealth 
suitable for men, and a manly suitable householder who 
shall bestow on us gifts. Impel to liberality, glowing 
Pushan, even the man who would fain bestow nothing ; 
soften the soul even of the niggard. Open up paths by 
which we may obtain food ; slay our enemies ; let our 



12 THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION. 

designs succeed, glorious god." With him is sometimes 
associated Soma, and the two are celebrated together as 
the generators of wealth and preservers of the world. 

Soma, the god animating the exhilarating juice of the 
soma plant, probably a species of Asclepias, seems to repre- 
sent Dionysus or Bacchus among; the early 
Indian Indian gods. The whole of the hymns, 114 in 
Bacchus or number, of the ninth book of the Big- Veda are 
Dionysus. dedicated t0 llim> p rof Whitney says of him : 

" The simple-minded Aiyan people had no sooner perceived 
that under the influence of this liquid the individual was 
prompted to and capable of deeds beyond his natural 
powers, than they found in it something divine ; the plant 
wdiich afforded it became to them the king of plants ; the 
process of preparing it was a holy sacrifice ; the instru- 
ments used therefore were sacred.*' The worship of Soma 
was very ancient, as it is mentioned in the Zend-avesta. 
To Soma are attributed almost all divine power and 
honours, especially in reference to his influence on the 
other gods and on his human votaries ; but his worship 
declined and almost wholly passed away with the early 
Veclic worship. 

Ushas, the goddess of dawn, has many of the most 

beautiful hymns addressed to her. She is described as 

Ushas the restoring consciousness, smiling like a flatterer, 

dawn awakening all creatures to cheerfulness, rousing 

g-oddess. j n ^ Q mo tion every living thing, born again and 
again, revealing the ends of the sky. " Blessed Ushas," 
says the worshipper, "thou who, animated by strength, 
shinest forth with wonderful riches, may I obtain that 
renowned and solid wealth which consists in stout sons, 
numerous slaves, and horses." (M.) Ushas is most usually 
described as the daughter of the sky, and is said to have 
the sun for her lover. The name Ushas (Ushasa) is 
identical with the Greek 'Hoos (Eos) and the Latin Aurora 
( = Ausosa). 

Agni, the god of fire (the Roman Ignis, the Slavonian 
Ogni), is a most prominent deity, being only paralleled, 

Agni, the in the number of hymns addressed to him, by 
god of fire. Jndra, His characteristics aptly portray the 



AGNI. 13 

wonder with which, our forefathers viewed fire. Agni is 
an immortal and messenger from and to the gods, who 
has taken up his abode with man. He is both sage and 
sacrificer, supreme director of religious ceremonies and 
duties. " Agni, thou from whom, as a newborn male, 
undying flames proceed, the brilliant smoke goes towards 
the sky, for as messenger thou art sent to the gods : thou 
whose power spreads over the earth in a moment, when 
thou hast grasped food with thy jaws, — like a dashing 
army thy blast goes forth ; with thy lambent flame thou 
seemest to tear up the grass. Him alone, the ever youth- 
ful Agni, men groom like a horse in the evening and at 
dawn; they bed him as a stranger in his couch.'' (M. M.) 
The world and the heavens are made manifest at his 
appearance, after having been swallowed up in darkness. 
He is all-devouring, has a burning head, is thousand-eyed 
and thousand-horned ; his flames roar like the waves of 
the sea, he sounds like thunder, and roars like the wind. 
He is described as having the highest divine functions 
of all kinds, and his votaries prosper and live long. He 
protects and blesses the worshipper who sweats to bring 
him fuel, or wearies his head to serve him. Prayers were 
made to him for all kinds of blessings, and for forgiveness 
for any sin committed through folly. The same simple 
familiarity in speaking to the gods which we have noticed 
before is seen in such an address as this : " If, Agni, thou 
wert a mortal, and I were an immortal. I would not 
abandon thee to wrong or to penury. My worshipper 
should not be pcor, nor distressed, nor miserable.'' That 
there was also an association of Agni with a future may 
be gathered from the following paraphrase. (M. W.) 

" Deliver, mighty lord, tliy worshippers, 
Purge us from taint of sin, and when we die, 
Deal mercifully with us on the pyre, 
Burning our bodies with their load of guilt, 
But bearing our eternal part on high 
To luminous abodes and realms of bliss, 
For ever there to dwell with righteous men." 

Tvashtar is the artisan and skilful contriver, and in 



14 THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION. 

many ways answers to Hephaistos and Vulcan. He 
sharpens the iron axe of Brahmanaspati and 
forges the thunderbolts of Indra. All kinds of 
created powers are attributed to him. The Asvins are 
the earliest bringers of light in the morning 
' sky, before the dawn, and are often connected 
with Surya ; they were enthusiastically worshipped and 
praised, being hailed as chasers away of darkness, and 
described as the guardians of the slow and hindmost, as 
physicians restoring the lame, blind, and sick, as placing 
the productive germ in all creatures, and as capable of 
renewing the youth of all. Consequently they were 
supplicated for varied blessings, and were begged to over- 
whelm and destroy the niggard who offered no oblations. 
It is thought by good authorities that these gods represent 
deified mortals who were at the same time swift in their 
movements and appeared to possess remarkable healing 
powers. 

A somewhat later god than these is variously known 
as Brihaspati and Brahmanaspati, and personifies the 
Brahmanas- worshipper, represented by the priest and sacri- 
pati. g cer interceding with the gods, thus showing 
a distinct advance in moral ideas. The word Brahman is 
one of the most difficult in all Sanskrit, having been very 
diversely derived and explained ; but while in its highest 
use it came to denote the objective Self or Cause of the 
universe, it may have originally represented the impulse 
and striving towards the gods, then every sacred word, 
formula, ceremony, or act, and finally the priest. Brah- 
manaspati is represented as the god of prayer, aiding 
Indra in conquering the cloud demon, and in some 
instances appearing to be identified with Agni. He is 
the offspring of the two worlds (Heaven and Earth), and 
is the inspirer of prayer, and by prayer accomplishes his 
designs ; he mounts the chariot of the ceremonial and 
proceeds to conquer the enemies of prayer and of the gods. 
He is the guide and protector of the pious, whom he saves 
from calamities and blesses with wealth. 

Vishnu is a god comparatively little mentioned in the 
Rig-Veda, but attaining great importance later. He is 



YAMA AND A FUTURE LIFE, 



most characterised of old by the three steps by which he 
strode over the world ; by his threefold exist- 
ence as fire on earth, as lightning in the atmo- Vlshnu * 
sphere, and as the sun in the sky ; or as the sun in his 
three positions of rising, culmination, and setting. Triple 
power and functions are variously asserted of him, and he 
is said to assist other gods. Only sometimes is he adored 
independently, as thus : " Our hymns and praises have 
proceeded to Vishnu, the worker of many wonders : he 
is the wide-stepping, the 
exalted, whose primeval, 
creative wives are inde- 
fatigable." Often he is 
closely associated with 
Indra. How different 
a position he afterwards 
assumes we shall see 
later on. Most of the 
goddesses mentioned in 
the Veda we must omit 
reference to, as they are 
of less importance. 

It is in the later por- 
tions, the ninth and 
tenth books, Yama and a 
of the Eig- future life. 
Veda, that we find a 
marked reference to the 
ideas of immortality and 
a future life, although 
they are not entirely wanting previously, as in passages 
where mortals are said to have attained immortality, or 
to have gone to the gods, who prolong their lives. Some- 
times, too, the souls of ancestors, the fathers existing with 
the gods, are invoked. These ideas are in the later books 
especially connected with Yama, the divine ruler of the 
spirits of the dead, by some supposed to represent the 
first man, and having a twin sister, Yami (Max Muller 
dissents from this view). Sir Monier Williams thus repre- 
sents Yama in verse : — 





Iffi&l 








V^J^iP^^B 








/^W$T 








/W/i^M, 


: jpA 


K^k 


/ 


/ _ J ., . illOj 

mm/f 


"5< 


^0^ 


P>7 


F 17 


W 






a 



YAMA (FE03I A NATIVE PICTURE). 



1 6 THE EARLY VED1C RELIGION. 

" To Yam a, mighty king, be gifts and homage paid. 
He was the first of men that died, the first to brave 
Death's rapid rushing stream, the first to point the road 
To heaven, and welcome others to that bright abode. 
No power can rob ns of the home thus w r on by thee. 
O king, we come ; the born must die, must tread the path 
That thou hast trod — the path by which each race of men, 
In long succession, and our fathers, too, have passed. 
Soul of the dead ! depart ; fear not to take the road — 
The ancient road — by which thy ancestors have gone ; 
Ascend to meet the god — to meet thy happy fathers, 
Who dwell in bliss with him. Fear not to pass the guards— 
The four-eyed brindled dogs — that w T atch for the departed. 
Return unto thy home, O soul ! Thy sin and shame 
Leave thou behind on earth ; assume a shining form — • 
Thy ancient shape — refined and from all taint set free." 

The two four-eyed clogs are of interest in comparison 
with. Cerberus, the dog of Tartarus. Yama is not repre- 
sented in the Rig- Veda, though he is in the later mytho- 
logy, as having anything to do with the future punish- 
ment of the wicked. His dogs are said to wander about 
among men as his messengers, and to guard the road to 
his abode ; the dead are advised to hurry past them with 
all speed. When the remains of the dead one have been 
placed upon the funeral pile, Agni, the god of fire, is 
besought not to scorch or consume him, but to convey 
him to the fathers as an offering. " Let his eye go to 
the sun, his breath to the wind. Go to the sky and to 
earth, according to nature ; or go to the waters, if that is 
suitable for thee. As for his unborn part, do thou (Agni) 
kindle it with thy heat ; with those forms of thine which 
are auspicious convey it to the world of the righteous.'' 
The spirit is then imagined to enter upon a more perfect 
life in which all desires are fulfilled ; occupation will also 
be found in fulfilling the pleasure of the gods. It must 
not be supposed that in a time when even the gods are 
represented as marrying and indulging in soma, the 
heaven of the departed would be idealised. 

The following passage will give an idea of the virtues 

Virtues ^ or which heaven was given : " Let him depart 
rewarded toy to those who through rigorous abstraction are 

Heaven, invincible. Let him depart to the combatants 



FUTURE PUNISHMENT. 17 

in battles, to tlie heroes wlio have there sacrificed their 
lives, or to those who have bestowed thousands of largesses. 
Let him depart. Yama. to those austere ancient fathers 
who have preached and promoted sacred rites.'' These 
fathers are in some hymns held up as objects of admira- 
tion to their descendants ; their descendants supplicate 
their good will, deprecate their wrath, and pray for their 
protection. They are asked to give them wealth, long 
life, and offspring. They are supposed to rejoice in 
libations and sacrificial food, and to come in thousands to 
the sacrifices. 

As to future punishment. Indra is in the tenth booh 
of the Rig- Veda prayed to consign to the lower darkness 
the man who injures his worshipper ; but it is Future 
not always certain that this lower darkness punishment. 
signifies a place of punishment. In the ninth book Soma 
is said to hurl the hated and irreligious into the abyss ; 
but references to future punishment are confessedly vague 
and indistinct in the Rig-Veda. 

One of the finest of the hymns of the Rig- Veda is the 
121st in the tenth book, thus translated by Max Miiller : — 

"In the beginning there arose the Source of golden 
light — He was the only born Lord of all that is. He 
established the earth, and the sky : — "Who is the God to 
whom we shall offer our sacrifice ? (This last clause is 
repeated after each verse.) 

"He who gives life. He who gives strength; whose 
blessing all the bright gods desire ; whose shadow is 
immortality ; whose shadow is death. 

"He who through His power is the only King of the 
breathing and awakening world ; He who governs all, 
man and beast. 

" He whose power these snowy mountains. w T hose power 
the sea proclaims, with the distant river — He whose these 
regions are as it were His two arms. 

" He through whom the sky is bright and the earth 
firm. He through whom the heaven was established, nay 
the highest heaven. He who measured out the light in 
the air. 

"He to whom heaven and earth, standing firm by His 

c 



1 8 THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION. 

will, look up, trembling inwardly ; He over whom the 
rising sun shines forth. 

" Wherever the mighty water-clouds went, where they 
placed the seed and lit the fire, thence arose He who is 
the only life of the bright gods. 

" He who by His might looked even over the water- 
clouds, the clouds which gave strength and lit the sacri- 
fice, He who is God above all gocls. 

" May He not destroy us, He the creator of the earth ; 
or He the righteous who created the heaven ; He who also 
created the bright and mighty waters ! " 

Thus we have contemplated in the earliest Veclic hymns 

a series of conceptions of distinct deities associated with 

the powers of Nature, and correspondingly 

monotheism named. It is only later that the idea seems 

and to arise that these were all representations of 
pantheism, i-nn , , n n •• 

dinerent aspects 01 one power, and sometimes 

this appears to proceed from a desire to magnify the 
particular god whose praises are being specially celebrated; 
later, new names were used to signify these more enlarged 
conceptions, such as Visvakarman and Prajapati, not 
limited to any particular department, but believed to be 
the divine powers governing the earth. Another kind 
of expression shows an early form of pantheism, identify- 
ing the godhead with Nature : Thus " Aditi is the sky, 
Acliti is the air, Aditi is the mother and father and son. 
Aditi is all the gods and the five classes of men. Aditi 
is whatever has been born. Aditi is whatever shall be 
born." (M.) 

Visvakarman (at first a name of Indra), the great 

architect of the universe, is in the tenth book of the Rig- 

visva- Veda represented as the all-seeing god, who has 

karman. on every side eyes, faces, arms, and feet, the 
father generator, who knows all worlds, and gives the 
gods their names. Similar attributes are in other hymns 
ascribed to other divine beings, such as Brahman, Pra- 
japati, etc. ; these being probably by different authors. 
"We see here the product of the most advanced thought 
among these early Aryans, including a singular variety 
of attempts to express the thoughts to which the great 



ORGANISATION OF EARLY HINDUS. 19 

phenomena of the universe gave rise in their minds. That 
these conceptions should be vague and often discordant 
and confused, and should include much that is puerile, is 
to be expected, when we remember that the sum of 
human thought up to the present day is " man cannot by- 
searching find out God.*' 

Sir Monier "Williams thus expresses his mature con- 
clusions on some important points : " The Vedic hymns 
contain no allusion to the doctrine of transmi- Absence of 
gration of souls, which is a conspicuous char- later Hindu 
acteristic of the Hindu creed in the later doctrmes - 
system. Nor do they afford any sanction to the prohibi- 
tion of widow marriages, the encouragement of child- 
marriages, the iron rules of caste, and the interdiction of 
foreign travel. Nor is there in them any evidence that 
the personifications of the forces of nature were repre- 
sented by images or symbols carved out of wood or stone.' 7 
Animals were killed for sacrifices as well as for food, and 
we find no trace of the objection to eat the flesh of cows, 
which became so strong at a later period. 

The people of the Yedas appear to have inhabited the 
Punjab, and to have only gradually extended their power 
into the tracts watered by the Jumna and organisation 
Ganges. Every father of a family at first was of early 
entitled to act as priest in his own family, Hindus, 
every chief in his own tribe ; but as the hymns or 
prayers or offerings began to grow elaborate, there was a 
tendency to restrict worship, especially on important 
occasions, to special priests, who knew the approved 
hymns or the prayers which had been believed to be 
successful. In time it became a part of the chief's credit 
to retain about him favourite or noted priests, and their 
offices, like those of the chiefs, tended to become here- 
ditary. Great gifts were lavished upon the priests by the 
kings, and many of the Vedic hymns commend this 
practice. Some of the hymns themselves were composed 
by kings ; and the Eishis gradually asserted themselves 
so far as to claim superior rank to the temporal rulers, and 
erect themselves into a distinct caste of Brahmans ; this 
position was not, however, acquired without a struggle. 



20 THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION. 

Special families were distinguished by symbols, such as 
the number and arrangement of their locks of hair, or 
their being shaven in peculiar ways. 

As to morals under this regime, it appears that one 
wife was the rule, while a plurality was tolerated ; women 

Morals might marry a second time, and appear to 
have had some freedom of choice. Immorality 
was by no means unknown, and Indra is said to have 
declared that " the mind of a woman was ungovernable, 
and her temper fickle." Untruth was condemned, and 
the gods were said to punish lying ; thieves and robbers 
are mentioned as infesting the highways or stealing 
secretly. Liberality and fidelity were held in high esteem. 

How forcible is the contrast between the beneficence 
and the brightness, the helpfulness and the kindliness of 
the gods, as imagined by the earlier Aryans, and the 
severity, the ruthlessness, the cruelty, afterwards associated 
with Hindu gods. Direct access to the gods, direct bene- 
fits in return for prayer and offerings ; intensity of prayer 
and meditation, fervency of petition, inevitably securing 
blessing, these are cardinal features of the early Hindu 
religion. 

The Sama-Veda, and the Yajur-Vecla are smaller col- 
lections formed mainly out of the Rig- Veda, but consider- 
ate other ably modified ; the former in verse, relating to 

vedas. the Soma offering, the latter in prose, relating 
to the other sacrifices. The Yajur-Veda belongs to a 
period when the Aryans had progressed into Eastern 
India, and when the Brahmans had acquired supremacy. 
The fourth great Vedic collection, the Atharva-Veda, 
belongs to a still later period, probably that of the Brah- 
manas, and contains the hymns and services then in use, 
modified or developed from the Vedic time. They exhibit 
a growth of belief in evil powers, and contain a series 
of formulas designed to protect against these, and against 
diseases and noxious animals and plants, together with 
cursings of enemies, and magic verses about all kinds of 
daily events, designed to counteract unfavourable events. 
This Veda contains a great number of words used by the 
people. 



ANIMAL SACRIFICE. 21 

Not yet within tlie region of elates and relation to 
known persons, we come to the next great division of 
ancient Hindu literature, the Brahmanas, which The 
exhibit to us a fully developed sacrificial system, Brahmanas. 
and are intended for the use of the priests or Brahmans. 
"We find here a series of prose compositions describing 
the connection of the sacred songs and words with the 
sacrificial rites. They may date from the seventh or 
eighth centuries B.C. We see in them, as in the case of 
so many priesthoods, the tendency to elaborate, to develop 
a ritual which could only be carried out by an hereditary 
caste, and which furnished a means of demanding large 
contributions from the votaries. The length of the Brah- 
manas themselves is wearisome, and is matched by their 
dogmatic assertion and their complex symbolism. Each 
of the collections of Vedic hymns has its proper Brahmanas, 
there being no fewer than eight Brahmanas to the Sama- 
Veda= Besides ceremonial directions, these Brahmanas 
contain numerous materials for tracing the growth of 
Hindu religious ideas. In one story of a king Human 
who had no son, after extolling the benefits sacrifice, 
that a son brings, the king offers, if a son be born to 
him, to sacrifice him to Varuna. When the son was born 
and was told of his destiny, he refused, and left his 
father's home. Disappointed of his victim, Varuna 
afflicted the father with dropsy. The son wandering for 
years in the forest, at last found a Brahman hermit in 
distress, whose second son voluntarily offered to be sold 
in order that he might be sacrificed instead of the king's 
son. Finally the substitute, by the virtue of Vedic 
prayers, was released from sacrifice. Another narrative 
describes how the gocls killed a man for their Animal 
victim, and the part of him fit for sacrifice sacrifice, 
entered successively into a horse, an ox, a sheep, and a 
goat, which were all sacrificed in turn. The sacrificial 
element remained longest in the goat, which thus became 
specially fit for sacrifice. Here we may see how an intro- 
duced human sacrifice may have been replaced by animal 
sacrifice. 

In the Satapatha-Brahmana, perhaps the most interest- 



22 THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION. 

ing of all these books, there is found an early tradition 
Tradition of of a flood. Manu, a holy man, was warned by 
a flood. a fish that a flood would sweep away all crea- 
tures, but he would rescue him. He was directed to 
build a ship and enter it when the flood rose ; he did so, 
and fastened the fish to the ship, and was drawn by it 
beyond the northern mountains. When the flood sub- 
sided Manu was the only man left ; a daughter was 
mysteriously born to him by virtue of religious rites, and 
ultimately the world was peopled with the sons of Manu. 
In later times it was said that the fish was an incarnation 
of Brahma, who assumed that form in order to preserve 
Manu. 

The doctrine of immortality is more definitely presented 
in the same Brahmana than in the Yedic hymns. The 
t rt S°d s h 3 ^ by toilsome religious rites become 
immortal. Death complained to the gods that 
men would follow their example. The gods enacted that 
no being should thenceforward become immortal in his 
own body, but should first present his body to Death. 

A remarkable passage shows that the ancient Brah- 
mans had a very advanced conception about the sun : 
idea of the " The sun never sets nor rises. "When people 
sun's course, think to themselves the sun is setting, he only 
changes about after reaching the end of the clay, and 
makes night below and clay to what is on the other side. 
Then when people think he rises in the morning, he only 
shifts himself about after reaching the end of the night, 
and makes clay below, and night to what is on the other 
side. In fact he never does set at all." 

There seems little doubt that the origin and establish- 
ment of the caste system was largely clue to the successful 
origin of assertion by the Brahmans of their superior 
caste. rank, combined with the growth of a class of 
cultivators distinct from the warriors, who at first were 
the great majority of the people. By this time the con- 
quering Aryans had spread themselves over the basin 
of the Jumna and Ganges, and the Brahmans found it 
necessary and advantageous to show that they had a 
more noble, powerful, and important religion than the 



PURIFICATION. 23 

aborigines wliom they conquered. Consequently we meet 
with such assertions as the following : " Verily self-assertion 
the gods do not eat the food offered by the of Brahmans. 
king who is without a purohita (family priest)/' In the 
Atharva-Veda, "May perfect, unceasing and victorious 
power accrue to those whose purohita I am. I perfect 
their kingdom, their might, their vigour, their strength. 
With this oblation I cut off the arms of their enemies."' 
This development was accompanied with the development 
of ceremonial to such an extent that several classes of 
priests w T ere required. 

It is exceedingly difficult, without entering into great 
detail, to give an idea of the contents of the Brahmanas. 
Assuming the older ceremonials to be known, Nature of the 
they comment upon every detail supposed to Braiiinanas. 
require explanation, discuss the meaning of particular 
verses or even of the metres used, and furnish explana- 
tions of the origin of the sacrifices, frequently consisting 
of legends and myths, often told very diffusely. A few 
extracts, somewhat abbreviated, from Mr. Eggeling's 
translation of parts of the Satapatha-Brahmana may give 
some notion of their contents. 

Every Brahmanical householder, from the period of 
setting up a household fire of his own, was enjoined to 
perform two monthly sacrifices, one at new the Household 
other at full moon, each lasting two clays. The sacrifices, 
first was a fast day, in which the fire-places were swept 
and trimmed, and the fires lighted, and the Brahman and 
his wife took tlxe vow to abstain from meat and some 
other foods, to cut off the beard and hair, except the crest- 
lock ; to sleep on the ground in one of the chief fire- 
houses ; and to observe silence. " He who is about to 
enter on the vow touches water, while standing between 
the (sacrificial) fires, with his face turned to- 
wards the east. The reason why he touches 
water is, that man is (sacrificially) impure on account of 
his speaking untruth, — and because by that act an internal 
purification is effected, for water is indeed (sacrificially) 
pure. . . . Looking towards the fire, he enters on the 
vow, with the text, ' Agni, Lord of Vows ! I will keep 



2\ THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION. 

the vow ! May I be equal to it, may I succeed in it ! ' 
For Agni is Lord of Vows to the gods, and it is to liim 
therefore that he addresses these words.' ' As to the 
fasting, it is contended that the essence of the 
as ing. vow cons i s t s i n fasting; for the gods see through 
the mind of man, and when he takes the vow they know 
that he means to sacrifice to them next morning, and 
betake themselves to his house. It would then be unbe- 
coming in him to take food before they have eaten, and 
he may only eat what is not offered in sacrifice, which 
must be only what grows in the forest. 

Every night and morning a burnt-offering of fresh milk 
had to be made to Agni, and on the morning of the sacri- 
ficial day, the householder chose his Brahman or superin- 
tending priest, an official who now becomes prominent — 
this class having indeed been no doubt the originator of the 
modern Brahmans. Then follows a most complex series 
of directions and explanations as to the various offerings. 

Equally elaborate are the directions given for the cere- 
mony of establishing sacrificial fires by a young house- 
Establish- holder. Four officiators were required besides 
ment of the sacrificer ; they erected two sheds or fire- 
Sa ^res ial houses by strict rules, and the fire w 7 as to be 
produced afresh by friction, or from certain 
definite sources, and placed upon the carefully purified 
fire-place. Towards sunset the sacrificer invoked the gods 
and ancestors thus : " Gods, fathers, fathers, gods ! I 
sacrifice, being whom I am ; neither will I exclude him 
whose I am ; mine own shall be the offering, mine own 
the toiling, mine own the sacrifice ! " He and his wife 
then entered the respective houses, and received with 
various ceremonies two pieces of w r oocl specially prepared 
for reproducing the sacred fire the next morning. The 
offerings which followed were chiefly of rice and clarified 
butter. Later the sacrificer, having honoured the priests 
by washing their feet and giving them perfumes, etc., and 
given to each his share, invited them to eat. The Soma 
ceremony, according to the Brahmanas, is still more de- 
veloped ; but it is quite impossible to compress an account 
of it into a short space. 



THE UPANISHADS. 25 

The Vedas and the Brahmanas in time proved insuffi- 
cient for securing the hold of the priestly class on the 
people. The next great group of compositions The 
were the Upanishads or mystical doctrine. Upanisiiads. 
Some of these are contained in a class of writings supple- 
mentary to the Brahmanas, known as the Aranyakas. or 
forest-books, intended for those Brahmans who. after 




BRAHMA, VISHNU, AND SIVA, FE01T THE ELLOEA CAVES. 



having performed all the duties of a student and a house- 
holder, retired to the forest to spend their remaining clays 
in contemplation. The word Upanishad is said by native 
authorities to mean ;, to set ignorance at rest by revealing 
the knowledge of the supreme spirit :: ; its real etymolo- 
gical meaning is a session, especially of pupils round a 



26 THE EARLY VED1C RELIGION. 

teacher. These books consequently became the most 
important Vedic treatises for learned Hindus. Max Mtiller 
considers that although the Upanishads are later than the 
Brahmanas, their germs already existed in the Rig- Veda ; 
and the earliest of them, he says, will always maintain 
a place in the literature of the world among the most 
astounding productions of the human mind in any age 
and in any country. 

The Khandogya Upanishad, which continues the suc- 
cession of the Sama-Veda, is one of the most important 
The syllable Hindu philosophical books. It begins by the 
0m - astonishing advice (to the Western mind), " Let 
a man meditate," or as some translate it, "Let a man 
'worship' the syllable Om;' The real meaning is, first, 
that by prolonged repetition of the syllable, the thoughts 
should be drawn away from all other subjects and con- 
centrated on the subjects of which that syllable was the 
symbol. It was the beginning of the Vecla, and the 
essence of it, the symbol of all speech and all life. Om 
therefore represented man's physical and mental powers, 
and especially the spirit or living principle, and this is 
identified later with the spirit in the sun or in nature ; 
and the beginning of this Upanishad teaches that no 
sacrifices, however perfectly performed, can secure salva- 
tion, while meditation on Om alone, or what is meant 
by it, will secure salvation or immortality. Finally the 
discussion reaches the highest philosophical subjects. The 
The origin of declaration that the origin of the world is ether, 
the world in "for all beings take their rise from the ether, 

etheT - and return into the ether ; ether is older than 
these, ether is their rest," has a striking significance when 
compared with the sentiments and speculations of philo- 
sophers at the British Association in 1888. But there 
is a further elevation of the ether, which includes more 
than the physical, for after defining Brahman as the 
immortal with three feet in heaven, the Upanishad says : 
" The Brahman is the same as the ether which is around 
us ; and the ether which is around us is the same as the 
ether which is within us. And the ether which is within, 
that is the ether within the heart. That ether in the 



THE ATM AN OR SELF-EXISTENT 



The Atman 
or Self- 
existent. 



heart is omnipresent and unchanging. He who knows this 
obtains omnipresent and unchangeable happiness." (M.M.) 
The highest doctrine of the Upanishad, according to 
Max Midler, is that the human 
Brahman recognised 
his own Self or "At- 
man" as a mere 
limited reflection of the Highest 
Self, and aimed at knowing his 
own Self in the Highest Self, 
which may be identified with 
the Divine Being, the Absolute, 
of Western philosophers. Through 
that knowledge he was to return 
to the Highest One and to regain 
his identity with it. " Here to 
know was to be, to know the 
Atman was to be the Atman, and 
the reward of that highest know- 
ledge after death was freedom 
from new births, or immortality.*' 
This Atman was also the source 
of all visible existence, identical 
with the Brahman and the Sal, 
the true and real, which exists in 
the beginning and for ever, and 
gives rise to every kind of exist- 
ence. Although there is much 
associated with this philosophy 
that seems trivial or fanciful, it 
contains the essence of pantheism ; 
modern philosophers find it hard 
to advance really further than 
the ancient Hindus. There are 
many references to the sacrifices 
and to particular gods, and it is 
said that he who knows or medi- 
tates on the sacrifices as enjoined, has his reward in 
different worlds with the gods for certain periods of time, 
till at last he reaches the true Brahman. In this state 




FIGURE OF HINDU PRAYINGS 

(From Temple at Madura.) 



28 THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION. 

he neither rises nor sets, lie is alone, standing in the 
centre ; to him who thus knows this doctrine u the sun 
does not rise and does not set. For him there is day, 
once and for all." 

The meditation on the five senses is one of the most strik- 
ing ; but the one which follows must be quoted as express- 
ing one of the essential expositions of Brahman philosophy. 

" All this is Brahman. Let a man meditate on that 
(visible world) as beginning, ending, and breathing in it 
(the Brahman). 

" Now man is a creature of will. According to what his 
will is in this world, so will he be when he has departed 
this life. Let him therefore have this will and belief. 

" The intelligent, whose body is spirit, whose form is 
light, whose thoughts are true, whose nature is like ether 
(omnipresent and invisible), from whom all works, all 
desires, all sweet odours and tastes proceed ; he who 
embraces all this, who never speaks, and is never sur- 
prised, — 

u He is my self within the heart, smaller than a corn of 
rice, smaller than a corn of barley, smaller than a mustard 
seed, smaller than a canary seed, or the kernel of a canary 
seed. He also is my self within the heart, greater than 
heaven, greater than all these worlds. 

" He from whom all works, all desires, all sweet odours 
and tastes proceed, who embraces all this, who never 
speaks and who is never surprised, he, my self within 
the heart, is that Brahman. When I shall have departed 
from hence, I shall obtain him (that Self)." (M.M.) 

In the Talavakara Upanishacl occurs the following 
notable passage: " That which is not expressed by speech 
and by which speech is expressed, that alone know as 
Brahman, not that which people here adore : That which 
does not think by mind, and by which, they say, mind 
is thought : That which does not see by the eye, and by 
which one sees the eyes : That which does not hear by 
the ear, and by which the ear is heard : That which does 
not breathe by breath, and by which breath is drawn, 
that alone know as Brahman, not that which people here 
adore." (M.M.) This Upanishacl is asserted to rest on 



THE SVETASVATARA. 29 

penance, restraint, and sacrifice ; u tlie Vedas are its 
limbs, the True is its abode. He wlio knows this Upan- 
ishad, and has shaken off all evil, stands in the endless 
unconquerable world of heaven.' 7 

The Svetasvatara contains a more fully developed 
doctrine, although it at times identifies the Brahman or 
highest self with several of the lower clivini- The Sveta- 
ties. It teaches the unity of souls in the one svatara. 
and only self ; the unreality of the world as a series of 
figments of the mind, as phenomenal only. There is no 
evolution of the Brahman ; he is absolute and does not 
directly create. He deputes that office to Isvara or Deva, 
the Lord, Brahman under the semblance of a personal 
creating and governing god. 

It is interesting to compare the pantheism of this 
Upanishad with previous expressions. Thus, " I know 
that great Person of sunlike lustre beyond the darkness. 
A man who knows him truly, passes over death ; there 
is no other path to go. This whole universe is filled by 
this Person, to whom there is nothing superior, from 
whom there is nothing different, than whom there is 
nothing smaller or larger, who stands alone, fixed like a 
tree in the sky. That which is beyond this world is 
without form and without suffering. They who know 
it, become immortal, but others suffer pain indeed. . . . 
Its hands and feet are everywhere, its eyes and head are 
everywhere, its ears are everywhere, it stands encom- 
passing all in the world. Separate from all the senses, 
yet reflecting the qualities of all the senses, and it is the 
lord and ruler of all, it is the great refuge of all." (M.M.) 

Certain of the narratives incidentally introduced into 
the Upanishads show a still further development of what 
is dimly visible in the Rig- Veda, and still more clearly 
expressed in the Brahmanas, namely, a struggle between 
the good or bright gods (clevas) and the evil spirits. In 
one of these Indra, as chief of the devas, and Virokana, 
chief of the evil spirits, are represented as seeking in- 
struction of Prajapati, as a supreme god. Prajapati said, 
" The self which is free from sin, free from old age, from 
death and grief, from hunger and thirst, which desires 



30 THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION. 

nothing but what it ought to desire, and imagines nothing 
but what it ought to imagine, that it is which we must 
search out, that it is which we must try to understand." 
(M.M.) The two seekers desire to realise that self, and 
are led on by successive stages of illusion, Virokana being 
easily satisfied with the idea that the body is the self; 
but Indra persists in inquiries, and finally learns that the 
real self is the knower or seer as distinct from the mind 
or the eye as instruments. 

Another Upanishad introduces in full expression the 
doctrine of transmigration. The immortality of the Self 
Transmigra- is taught, and that after death some are born 
tionof souls, again as living beings, some enter into stocks 
and stones. " He, the highest Person, who wakes in us 
while we are asleep, shaping one lovely sight after another, 
he indeed is called the Bright, he is called Brahman. 
. . . There is one eternal thinker, thinking non-eternal 
thoughts ; he, though one, fulfils the desires of many. 
The wise who perceive him within their Self, to them 
belongs eternal peace. . . . He, the Brahman, cannot 
be reached by speech, by mind, or by the eye. He 
cannot be apprehended, except by him who says : He is. 
When all desires that dwell in the heart cease, then the 
mortal becomes Immortal, and obtains Brahman." 

Max Muller sums up the purpose of the Upanishads as 
being "to show the utter uselessness, nay the mischievous- 
Purpose of liess °^ a ^ ritual performances; to condemn 
•the every sacrificial act which has for its motive a 
Upanishads. c ] es i re or hope of reward; to deny, if not the 
existence, at least the exceptional and exalted character 
of the clevas, and to teach that there is no hope of salvation 
and deliverance, except by the individual self recognising 
the true and universal Self, and finding rest there, where 
alone rest can be found.' 7 

So worked the human mind in India thousands of years 
ago, and produced these books of wisdom, believed to be 
directly revealed, mixed with much that is childish ; so 
grew that highly artificial sacerdotal system by which 
the Brahmans gained that supremacy in India which 
they have never wholly lost. 




WORSHIPPING THE GANGES. 



CHAPTEE II. 

Cl)e Srafrinanisfm of tbt Cotos;, 

Tlie Sutras— Rationalist philosophers— The six Shastras— Common tenets— 
How to attain emancipation— The banefulness of activity— The Sankhya 
philosophy— The Yoga philosophy— Early rituals— Gautama's institutes 
—Rites of purification— The four orders of Brahmans— The ascetic— 
The hermit— The householder's duties— Kings— When the Veda is not to 
he recited— Various restrictions— The duty of women— Outcasts— Pen- 
ances and penalties -The laws of Manu— Date— Alleged origin— Self- 
repression inculcated— Study of the Veda a privilege— The gods in Manu 
—New births and hells— Duties of the four castes— Lofty claims of the 
Brahmans— The four periods of life— The student— Some liberal senti- 
ments— The householder— The chief daily rites— Sacrifices for the dead 
—Position of women— Gifts— Spiritual merit— The hermit in the forest 
—The mendicant ascetic— The duties of a king— The Brahman's supe- 
riority—Crimes—Punishments and penances— Falsehood excused— Caste 
—Growth of mixed castes— Transmigration of souls— Efficacy of the 
code— Code of Yajnavalkya. 

THE very mass of the Vedic sacred literature became 
its bane. No one could learn it all and understand 
it all. There arose a need for condensed statements of 

31 



32 THE BRAHMANISM OF THE CODES. 

the revealed truth and the laws of ceremonial, and we 
have these in the form of Sutras, or collections 

e u ras. o £ a pj 10r j_ sms tersely giving the most needful 
information ; and these were composed by different 
authors for different Brahmanical families, and are exceed- 
ingly numerous. They are based upon the Veclas and 
the subsequent Brahmanas, and exhibit many of the 
peculiarities of the Vedic language. They give us for 
the first time a full account of the castes, composed at a 
time contemporaneous with the rise and spread of Bud- 
dhism. 

During the same period, probably about BOO B.C., there 
arose, contemporary with Buddha, a number of rationalist 
Rationalist philosophers, who, while accepting the authority 
philosophers. f the Vedas and the supremacy of the Brah- 
mans, speculated freely on questions of philosophy and 
the moral government of the universe. Finally these 
were arranged in six main systems of teaching, some- 
times called the six Shastras. Which of these is the 

The six earlier cannot yet be considered settled. But 

Shastras. a g rea t deal is common to most of the systems, 

and is still held by the majority of educated Hindus. 

Such articles of common belief are : the eternity of the 

Common soul, both the supreme soul or Brahman and 

tenets. ^he individual soul or Atman ; the eternity of 
matter, or that substance out of which the universe is 
evolved ; that the soul can only exercise thought and 
will when invested with some bodily form and joined to 
mind, and has in successive ages become manifest as 
Brahma, Vishnu, Siva, etc., and in the form of men ; 
that the union of the soul with the body is a bondage, 
and in the case of men produces misery ; that conse- 
quences inevitably follow acts, whether good or bad, and 
these are partly suffered in heaven or hell, and partly 
have to be worked out through continual transmigrations 
of the soul in varied animal, material, or higher forms ; 
that this transmigration is the explanation of all evil, 
but the soul bears the consequences of its own acts only, 
though these may have taken place in an inconceivable 
number of past existences, not recollected ; and finally 



THE SANKHYA PHILOSOPHY, ^ 

tliat the great aim of philosophy is to produce indifference 
in thought, feeling and action, and to enable the in- 
dividual to return to the condition of simple soul. 

The terseness of these Sutra philosophies may be illus- 
trated from the Nyaya of Gautama (a philosopher distinct 
from the great Buddha). Deliverance from the Howto 
misery of repeated births is to be thus at- attain eman- 
tained: " Misery, birth, activity, fault, false ci P ation - 
notions ; on the removal of these in turn (beginning with 
the last), there is the removal also of that which precedes 
it; then ensues final emancipation/' (M.W.) A Hindu 
comment on this is as follows : " From false notions pro- 
ceed partiality and prejudice ; thence come the faults of 
detraction, envy, delusion, intoxication, pride, avarice. 
Acting with a body, a person commits injury, theft, and 
unlawful sensualities — becomes false, harsh, and slander- 
ous. This vicious activity produces demerit. But to do 
acts of charity, benevolence, and service with the body ; 
to be truthful, useful, agreeable in speech, or given to 
repetition of the Veda ; to be kind, disinterested, and 
reverential — these produce merit. Hence merit and 
demerit are fostered by activity. This activity Banefuiness 
is the cause of vile as well as honourable births, of activity. 
Attendant on birth is pain. That comprises the feeling 
of distress, trouble, disease and sorrow. Emancipation is 
the cessation of all these. "What intelligent person will 
not desire emancipation from all pain ? " 

This system, with its supplement, the Vaiseshika, 
teaches the eternity of material atoms, and also of the 
supreme Soul and of individual souls. The The sankhya 
Sankhya philosophy is still more positive on philosophy. 
these points, and says : " There cannot be the pro- 
duction of something out of nothing ; that which is not 
cannot be developed into that which is." It recognises 
that there is a being or essence which evolves or pro- 
duces everything else, together with Souls which neither 
produce nor are produced, but become united w^ith the 
world-evolver in varied degrees. The development of 
these ideas in later Hindu theology and philosophy w x ill 
be referred to hereafter. 



34 THE BRAHMANISM OF THE CODES, 

The Yoga philosophy is the foundation of much of the 
asceticism of the Hindu. It directly acknowledges the 
supreme Being, and aims at teaching the human soul to 

The Yoga attain perfect union with the supreme Soul, 
philosophy. j n it we have the fuller development of the 
benefits of contemplating the syllable Om, the symbol 
of the deity. Mental concentration is facilitated by 
bodily restraint and postures, religious observances, sup- 
pression of the breath, restraint of the senses, etc., and 
by these in their varied forms, the devotee is supposed to 
attain union with the supreme Being, even in the present 
life. 

The remaining chief systems of philosophy, the Jaimini 
and the Vedanta, are mainly concerned with ritual. The 
former may be said to have made a god of ritual, and 
appealed to the Veda as infallible. The Vedanta professes 
to be based upon the Upanishads and their pantheism. 

Much of the ceremonial of the Hindus was also very 
early condensed in Sutra form, and every school had its 
own form. Several of these, preceding the celebrated 

Earl rituals ^ aws °^ ^ anu ? have come down to us. They 

' are a kind of manual composed by the Vedic 

teachers for use in their respective schools, and only later 

put forward as binding on Aryans generally. The "In- 

Gautama's stitutes of the Sacred Law," ascribed to 

institutes. Gautama, begins by acknowledging the Veda 

as the source of the sacred law, and proceeds to fix the 

period and mode of initiation of a Brahman, and the 

rites of purification after touching impure things. Here 

is a specimen of these rites. 

" Turning his face to the east or to the north, he shall 
purify himself from personal defilement. Seated in a 

Rites of pure place, placing his right arm between his 
purification, knees, arranging his dress (or his sacrificial 
cord) in the manner required for a sacrifice to the gods, 
he shall, after washing his hands up to the wrist three 
or four times, silently, sip water that reaches his heart, 
twice wipe his lips, sprinkle his feet and his head, touch 
the cavity in the head with his right hand, and place it 
on the crown of his head and on his navel/ 7 



KINGS. 35 

Students of the Veclas had to study each for twelve 
years, but might restrict their study to one Veda only. 
After the Veda had been studied, he might The four 
choose which order of Brahmans he would orders of 
enter ; that of the student, the householder, the Braiimans - 
ascetic, or the hermit in the woods. The ascetic was re- 
quired to live by alms, to restrain every desire, 
and maintain an attitude of indifference towards 
all creatures, whether they did him an injury or kindness. 
The hermit was to live in the forest, and subsist on roots 
and fruits, practising austerities. He was to 
worship gods, manes (ancestor worship), men, 
goblins, and Eishis (great Vedic teachers). He must not 
enter a village, nor step on ploughed land; his dress 
must be made of bark and skins. 

For the householder, marriage and its rites are of the 
utmost importance, and full directions are given as to 
the choice of a wife and the ceremonies attend- ThQ h0VLSe „ 
ing marriage, which vary according to the holder's 
kind of marriage. The offspring of marriages duties - 
with other castes give rise in each case to a distinct caste. 
Complex domestic ceremonies are prescribed, with offer- 
ings to the deities presiding over the eight points of the 
horizon, at the doors of the house to the Maruts, to the 
deities of the dwelling inside the house, to Brahman in 
the centre of the house, to the Waters near the water pot, 
to the Ether in the air, and in the evening to the beings 
walking about at night. A kindly courtesy is shown in 
the direction that a householder before he eats shall feed 
his guests, infants, sick people and women, aged men, 
and those of low condition. A Brahman is allowed to 
earn his living by varied occupations in times of distress ; 
but he is forbidden to sell a great many specified kinds of 
goods. 

The authority of kings is upheld in Gautama's Insti- 
tutes, but at the same time high privileges are demanded 
for Brahmans, who, if of high rank and relig- 
ious character, must not be corporally punished, m ^ s * 
imprisoned, fined, exiled, or reviled. Truth-speaking and 
the ascertainment of truth are strongly inculcated. 



36 THE BRAHMANISM OF THE CODES. 

One of the most curious chapters in these Institutes 
details a multitude of circumstances in which the Veda is 

when the 110 ^ ^° ^ e re °ited ; as, for instance, if the wind 
Veda is not to whirls up the dust in the daytime, or if it is 
be recited. ail( jible at night, if the barking of many dogs 
and jackals or the braying of many donkeys is heard, 
when the reciter is riding in a carriage or on beasts of 
burden, in a burial ground, in the extremity of a village, 
when it thunders and rains, etc., etc. Equally curious 
are the particulars of the gifts which may be accepted 

various from twice-born persons (i.e., pure Aryans). If 
restrictions, the means of subsistence cannot be otherwise 
obtained, it may be accepted from a Sudra (one of the 
slave or subject races). A householder may not eat food 
into which a hair or an insect has fallen, nor what has 
been smelt at by a cow, nor what has been cooked twice, 
nor what has been given by various people of bad cha- 
racter performing low offices. The classes of animals that 
may not be eaten remind one of the ceremonial restric- 
tions of Leviticus ; but in fact the principle of tabooing 
certain things to those who belong to a higher or select 
order is found in many parts of the world. The milk of 
sheep, camels, and entire-hoofed animals was forbidden 
to the Brahmans. Five-toed animals were not to be 
eaten, except the porcupine, the hare, the boar, the 
iguana, the rhinoceros, and the tortoise ; nor animals 
with a double row of teeth, those covered with an excess 
of hair, those with no hair, entire-hoofed animals, and 
indeed whole groups of creatures. 

Women were enjoined to fulfil their duty to their 

husbands strictly, and restrain their tongues, eyes, and 

The duty of actions ; yet much that Christians would revolt 

women, against is declared lawful and right for her to 
do. Early betrothals are enjoined. The crimes for which 
a man becomes an outcast are very varied, including 
murder and many crimes against Brahmans, and associa- 
tion with outcasts ; thus boycotting is almost 

outcasts. as oM as Br ahmanism, if not ia er . " To be 

an outcast/ 7 says Gautama, " means to be deprived of the 
right to follow the lawful occupations of twice-born men, 



THE LAWS OF MANU. 37 

and to be deprived after death of the rewards of meri- 
torious deeds."' 

Numerous and severe penances for various offences are 
enjoined. He who has killed a Brahman must penances and 
emaciate himself and thrice throw himself into penalties. 
a fire, or remaining chaste he may, during twelve years, 
enter the village only for the purpose of begging, carry- 
ing the foot of a bedstead and a skull in his hand, and 
proclaiming his deed ; thus standing by day, sitting at 
night, and bathing thrice a clay, he may be purified in 
twelve years, or by saving the life of a Brahman. It 
is most striking how vigorously the Brahman literature 
maintains the sanctity and inviolability of its priests, and 
claims to exert throughout the life of the Aryans a 
minute authority scarcely paralleled by the Church of 
Rome. Some of the severest penalties are those inflicted 
for touching spirituous liquor. Thus " they shall pour 
hot spirituous liquor into the mouth of a Brahman who 
has drunk such liquor ; he will be purified after death.' 7 
Severe secret penances are enjoined 011 those whose sins 
are not publicly known. It is not to be supposed that 
the worship of the gods is intentionally lowered by these 
regulations ; but the very great importance assumed by 
ceremonial observances and penances naturally tended to 
lower the dignity of the gods and raise that of the 
Brahmans. It is not wonderful, therefore, that Buddhism 
should have arisen. 

THE LAWS OF MANU. 

We have not space to compare this lawbook with later 
ones which bear the names of Vasishtha, Baudhayana, 
and Apastamba, or to give an account of the 
Grihya Sutras or books specially on domestic 
ceremonies ; but must pass on to the celebrated Laws 
of Manu, a metrical version of the whole Brahmanical 
scheme, dating, according to some authorities, from the 
fifth century B.C. ; but Prof. Btihler does not consider it 
certain that it existed in its present form earlier than 
the beginning of the second century a.d., though un- 
doubtedly it is derived from earlier versions containing 



38 



THE BRAHMANISM OF THE CODES. 




HINDU RELIGIOUS MENDICANT. 



ALLEGED ORIGIN. 39 

substantially the same matter. It results, in fact, from 
the gradual transformation of the teaching of a school 
into a general lawbook. But in process of time this book 
became surrounded by a multitude of fictitious legends 
designed to support its divine authority and secure the 
obedience of all Aryans, The first chapter of Manu is an 
apt illustration of this, and we therefore quote a portion 
from Buhler's translation. 

" The great sages approached Manu, who was seated 
with a collected mind, and having duly worshipped him, 
spoke as follows : — 

" ' Deign, divine one, to declare to us precisely and in 
due order the sacred laws of each of the four Alleged 
chief castes and of the intermediate ones. origin. 

"'For thou, Lord,- alone knowest the purport {i.e.) 
the rites, and the knowledge of the soul, taught in this 
whole ordinance of the Self-Existent, which is unknow- 
able and unfathomable ! 

" : He who can be perceived by the internal organ alone, 
who is subtile, indiscernible, and eternal, who contains 
all created beings and is inconceivable, shone forth of his 
own will. 

" ' He, desiring to produce beings of many kinds from 
his own body, first with a thought created the waters, and 
placed his seed in them. 

" L That seed became a golden egg, in brilliancy equal 
to the sun ; in that (egg) he himself was born as Brahman, 
the progenitor of the whole world.' " 

After a very fanciful account of the derivation of all 
creation and of the relations of the creator to the creatures, 
it is stated that the creator himself composed these Insti- 
tutes and taught them to the author, Manu, who deputes 
Bhrigu his pupil to recite them. 

It appears that the introduction of the Laws of Manu 
as a general authority was due to the great accumulation 
of older works, having but a local and limited authority, 
and to the gradual extension of the influence of a par- 
ticular school of general religious and legal instruction. 
No doubt one factor which contributed to its wide re- 
ception was the extended description of the duties and 



40 THE BRAHMANISM OF THE CODES. 

powers of the king and of the administration of justice, 
and another was its general relation and suitability to 
all Aryans, whatever their caste* Their authority was 
clenched and upheld by their being given out as the work 
of Manu, the typical man, the offspring of the self-existent 
Brahman, and consequently of double nature, divine and 
human. Hence he was invoked as Lord of created beings, 
and even as identical with Brahman, the supreme Soul. 
In the Rig- Veda he is frequently termed Father Mann, 
and it is stated that " the five tribes " or " the races of 
men " are his offspring. "We have already referred to 
the legend in the Satapatha-brahmana in which Manu is 
said to have been saved from a great flood which de- 
stroyed all other creatures. He thus naturally represents 
social and moral order, and is the type of the temporal 
ruler, the inspired teacher and the priest combined. In 
many passages of the Rig- Veda his sacrifices are men- 
tioned, and the gods are begged to accept the offerings of 
the priests as they accepted those of Manu. 

That writing was known and in considerable use w T hen 
the Law r s of Manu were compiled, is evident from several 
passages, and also from the complex translations which 
are mentioned, which would have been impossible with- 
out writing. The number of archaic - phrases and the 
primitive customs described show that it is based on 
earlier works ; and by careful study a very good idea of 
its development may be formed. 

In giving some account of the Laws of Manu an en- 
deavour will be made to dwell principally upon their re- 
High ligious aspect ; but it is difficult for the Western 

religious mind to realise the extent to which every detail 
ideal. Q j. a Hi nc [ u > s iif e an( j conduct is connected with 
and supported by his religious belief. In fact the Christian 
ideal, that the whole life should be religious, has long 
been practised by a vast number of Hindus, although the 
form, basis, and nature of the religions differ so widely. 

The assent of the heart is the inner sanction of the 

Seif-repres- Hindu law, supported by the authority of 

sion incui- Manu, the Veda, the Vedic teachers, and the 

cated. customs of holy men. The desire of rewards is 



THE GODS IN MANL. 41 

declared to be not laudable in itself, but it is recognised 
and utilised ; and the man who discharges his prescribed 
duties is promised the attainment of the deathless state, 
and even in this life the realisation of all his desires. 
How completely the system was directed to self-repression 
and the production of passivity in this life may be seen 
by this verse : " That man may be considered to have 
really subdued his organs, who, on hearing and touching 
and seeing, or tasting and smelling anything, neither re- 
joices nor repines. 7 ' The privilege of being study of 
instructed in the Veda is strictly fenced in, but the Veda 
the limitations may be relaxed by presents of a P rivile £ e - 
money. Even in times of dire distress, however, a Vedic 
teacher was rather to die with his knowledge than sow it 
in barren soil. The Brahman unlearned in the Veda is 
stigmatised as useless, like a wooden elephant, having 
nothing but the name in common with his kind. The 
Veda is, indeed, extolled to a position which is only 
rivalled by those whom some have called Bibliolaters. 
Thus we read that the Veda is the eternal eye of the 
manes, gods and men, and beyond human comprehension. 
Everything not founded on it is founded on darkness, 
and produces no reward after death ; the eternal lore of 
the Veda upholds all created beings. He only who knows 
the Veda deserves royal authority, the office of a judge, 
the command of armies. By knowledge of the Veda the 
taint arising from evil acts is burnt out of the soul. A 
Brahman who retains the Rig- Veda in his memory is not 
stained by guilt, though he may have destroyed the three 
worlds. Study of the Upanishads is mentioned as neces- 
sary to the attainment of union with the supreme Soul. 

As to the gods other than this universal Spirit or Soul, 
they scarcely go beyond the lists already given in the 
Vedic period, such as Indra, Surya, the Maruts, The gods in 
Yama, Varuna, Agni, etc., whose energetic Manu. 
action the king is* to emulate ; but they appear to occupy 
a very moderate place in the scheme, the Supreme Spirit 
and the Brahmanic rites being chief. Indeed, there is a 
manifest leaning towards pantheism, it being frequently 
declared that everything proceeds from Brahma the uni- 



42 THE BRAHMANISM OF THE CODES. 

versal Soul, and will ultimately be absorbed once more 
in the same. The whole philosophy is affected by the 

New births doctrine of transmigration of souls, new births 

and hells. { n ^} ie same or a lower order of creation or in 
hells being the result of evil conduct, and absorption in 
the Supreme Soul being the grand result of the greatest 
merit. The hells described, though terrible, are con- 
sequently only temporary. Among the torments are 
u being devoured by ravens and owls, the heat of scorch- 
ing sand, being boiled in jars," etc. iUtogether, theology 
is largely absent from Manu. But it must be remem- 
bered that the constant study of the Veda is everywhere 
inculcated. There is scarcely any reference to public 
worship or to temples ; and from its whole tone we see 
how the family was the keystone of the Brahmanic re- 
ligion. The influence of the Brahmans over the domestic 
life of the people was profound and sufficient at the time 
when the code of Manu was composed. 

The original castes are stated to be four, the Brahman, 
the Kshatriya or warrior, the Vaisya (cultivator), and the 
Duties of the Sudra or servant ; and (as in the tenth book of 

four castes, the Rig- Veda) they originated respectively from 
the mouth, arms, thighs, and feet of Brahma, who assigned 
them their separate duties. To Brahmans he assigned 
teaching and studying the Veda, sacrificing for their own 
benefit and for others, and giving and accepting of alms ; 
to Kshatriyas the protection of the people, the bestowal of 
gifts, the offering of sacrifices, the study of the Veda, and 
abstinence from sensual pleasures ; to the Vaisyas tending 
cattle, the bestowal' of gifts, the offering of sacrifices, the 
study of the Veda, trading, lending money, and the cultiva- 
tion of land ; to the Sudras simply to serve the other three. 
The Brahman caste is exalted far above the others, 
having sprung from the mouth of Brahma, being the 
Lofty claims first-born, the preserver of the Veda, and having 
of the the right of expounding it. • " What created 

Brahmans. "| De i n g can surpass him, through whose mouth 
the gods continually consume the sacrificial viands and 
the offerings to the dead?" The most distinguished 
Brahman is he who fully performs his duty and knows 



LOFTY CLAIMS OF THE BRAHMANS. 43 

the Brahman ; he in fact becomes one with Brahma the 
creator. The most extravagant claims of lordship over 
all creatures, of possession of everything, are made on his 
behalf. In fact, not only is everything bestowed upon 
him, his own already, but other mortals are stated to owe 
their subsistence to the benevolence of the Brahmans. In 
some passages of Manu a Brahman is even lifted to the 
rank of a divinity, whether he were ignorant or learned, 
and even if he were occupied in a mean occupation. A 
Brahman who studies Manu and faithfully performs his 
duties is said to be never tainted by sins of thought, word, 
or deed, and to sanctify any company he may enter, 
together with seven ancestors and seven descendants. 
Surely more arrogant self-assertion was never advanced 
and admitted than by these Brahmans. The king is 
warned not to provoke them to anger, for it is asserted 
that they could instantly destroy him and his army, by 
their power over all creation, and by the utterance of 
magic texts. Yet, inconsistently enough, it is allowed 
that just as Kshatriyas cannot prosper without Brahmans, 
so Brahmans cannot prosper without Kshatriyas. Their 
persons are declared inviolable, and the crime of threaten- 
ing a Brahman with a stick will be punished in hell for 
a hundred years, while the actual striker of a Brahman 
will remain in hell a thousand years. Still more extrava- 
gant is this further threat: " As many particles of dust 
as the blood of a Brahman causes to coagulate, for so 
many thousand years shall the shedcler of that blood 
remain in hell.' 7 This system could of course only be 
maintained by the receipt of heavy fees. The repetitions 
of the Veda and the performance of the sacrifices were 
made to depend upon the gifts to the officiating Brahmans. 
No taxes were to be paid by them ; and any king who 
suffered a learned Brahman to die of hunger would have 
his kingdom afflicted by famine, while the meritorious 
acts of any Brahman whom he protected would increase 
the king's wealth, length of life, and kingdom. Yet, if, 
after all these injunctions, a Brahman failed to receive 
proper patronage and support, he might become a soldier, 
a cultivator, or a trader. 



44 THE BRAHMANISM OF THE CODES. 

We must give some further detail of the Brahman's 
life and course of study ; for although it only partially 

The four applies to the other classes of Hindus, it repre- 
periodsof life, sents that ideal which they continually looked 
The student. U p ^ an( j reYerec ^ anc [ f s as characteristic of 

Hindu religious life as that of the clergyman of the present 
day is of our own. "We cannot fail to be astonished at 
the lengthy student period which the Brahman must go 
through. Studentship might last for nine, eighteen, or 
thirty-six years, or even for the whole of life. The most 
important of the numerous preliminary rites was the 
investiture with the sacred cord or sacrificial string, which 
must be of three threads of cotton, twisted to the right, 
and w T orn over the left shoulder and across the body to 
the right hip. The ceremony commenced with taking 
a staff as tall as the pupil, and worshipping the sun while 
standing and walking round the sacred fire, after which 
he begged alms and food in succession of each person 
present according to a fixed order. After having eaten, 
and purified himself with water, a series of formalities 
is required before the teacher begins to instruct his pupil 
in the Veda, the syllable Om being always pronounced at 
the beginning and end of a lesson. Once initiated, regular 
bathing, with libations of water to the gods, the inspired 
Rishis, and deceased ancestors, is required of the Brahman 
student, and he must reverence the deities (explained 
later to mean, " worship the images of the gods 7 '), and 
place fuel on the sacred fire. He must live a chaste life, 
refrain from meat and all sensuality, from dancing, sing- 
ing, and playing musical instruments, must never injure 
any living creature, must not wear shoes or use an um- 
brella, and must refrain from anger, covetousness, idle 
disputes, and gambling. The regulations for securing 
reverent behaviour towards the teacher are very elaborate; 
and parents and elders generally are to be highly re- 
garded. It is declared that the trouble and pain which 
parents undergo on the birth of their children cannot be 
compensated even in a hundred years, and obedience to 
them and to the teacher are the best forms of austerity ; 
the son must rejoice to do what is agreeable and beneficial 



HINDU SUTTEE. 45 

to them ; by honouring tliem the three worlds are gained ; 





5^y~- 



3Gi 1 1 ~ ^=^3^ 




HINDU SUTTEE (SATl), OR THE SELF-IAIMOLATION OE A WIDOW. 

for him who honours them not, all rites are fruitless. 



46 THE BRAHMAN1SM OF THE CODES. 

Somewhat surprisingly, in the midst of these stringent 

regulations we come upon the following liberal senti- 

Some liberal ments : "He who possesses faith may receive 

sentiments, pure learning even from a man of lower caste, 

and an excellent wife even from a base family." 

" Even from poison nectar may be taken, even from a 
child good advice, even from a foe a lesson in good 
conduct, and even from an impure substance gold. 

" Excellent wives, learning, the knowledge of the law, 
the rules of purity, good advice, and various arts may be 
acquired from anybody." 

Finally, the Brahman who has not broken his vow 
during his student stage is promised after death the 
highest abode, and that he will not be born again in 
this world. 

The stage of a householder being at length reached, 
the Brahman must marry a wife of equal caste, free from 
The bodily defects and having various good quali- 
housenoider. ties ; but polygamy is allowed though not re- 
commended, and when the first wife is one of equal caste, 
another wife may be taken from each of the inferior 
castes. Eight different forms of marriage, four laudable 
and four blamable, the chief differences being in the 
matter of dowry and attendant circumstances, the highest 
rank being accorded to a marriage where the parent of 
the bride offers her with costly garments and jewels to 
a learned Brahman ; the son of such a wife is said to 
liberate from sin ten ancestors and ten descendants if 
he does meritorious works. 

The Brahman householder had to perform daily five 
chief rites : (1) muttering the Veda ; (2) offering water 

The chief and food to ancestors ; (3) a burnt offering to 
daily rites, the gods ; (4) an offering to all creatures, in- 
cluding aged parents, good and evil spirits, consisting of 
the scattering of rice-grains on the housetop or outside 
sacrifices for the door; (5) an offering to men, consisting of 
the dead, hospitable reception of (Brahman) guests. This 
last was naturally considered of great importance, as it 
afforded the chief means of support to the students, 
ascetics, and hermits. Sacrifices for the dead were re- 



POSITION OF WOMEN. 47 

quired to be performed every new moon, and at these 
times learned Bralimans were specialty entertained. A 
long list of those who must not be invited or who must 
be shunned on these occasions is given, including phy- 
sicians, temple-priests (implying that these were rising 
in importance and were considered to have interests 
opposed to those of the domestic Bralimans), sellers of 
meal, actors or singers, one-eyed men, incendiaries, drunk- 
ards, gamblers, those who had forsaken parents. The 
great importance assigned to these celebrations for de- 
ceased ancestors, — being declared much more important 
than the rites in honour of the gods, — seems to indicate 
that ancestor worship among the Aryans was later than 
nature worship. The funeral sacrifices further acquired 
importance to the Hindus as affording the basis of their 
law of inheritance. All who offered the funeral cake 
and water together w r ere bound in one family, represented 
by the eldest male, although the living family had a joint 
interest in the family property. This part of the subject 
we cannot here detail, although intimately connected 
with and enforced by the religious sanction. 

An astonishing number of daily rites and of things 
to be avoided is laid down for good Brahmans, and this 
can only be matched by the extreme of early Pharisaic 
restriction ; but although the eating of meat is forbidden 
in general, it is expressly enjoined on certain occasions. 

As regards the position of women in Maim, it is one 
of complete subjection ; the husband was not to eat with 
his wife, nor look at her when she ate ; women were 
forbidden to repeat the Veda, or to perform position of 
any religious rite separately ; they must con- women, 
tinually feel their dependence on their husbands. The 
wife must worship her husband as a gocl. Women were 
credited with many inbred evils. When unfaithful to 
her husband, she is born of a jackal in the next life, and 
tormented with diseases. No repudiation or divorce of a 
wife was (originally) recognised, and if sold or repudiated 
she could not be the legitimate wife of another. There 
is no ground for the long-current statement that Manu 
or the Vedas supported or enjoined the burning of 



48 THE BRAHMANISM OF THE CODES. 

widows (Sati 1 ). The re-marriage of widows is mentioned, 
but with, censure, and a widow who remains chaste is 
rewarded with heaven. Very early marriage of girls 
was permitted if a suitor was distinguished and. hand- 
some. 

Householders are enjoined to be liberal in gifts. " If 
he is asked, let him always give something, be it ever 
so little, without grudging ; " the giver re- 
ceives corresponding rewards, either in worldly 
prosperity or in future existences. Truthfulness is highly 
recommended : "he who is dishonest in speech is dis- 
honest in everything." Giving no pain to any creature, 
the householder is to slowly accumulate spiritual merit, 

spiritual the only lasting companion. " Single is each. 

merit. being born ; single it dies ; single it enjoys the 
reward, of its virtue ; single it suffers the punishment of 
its sin. . . . He who is persevering, gentle, and. patient, 
shuns the company of men of cruel conduct, and does 
no injury to living creatures, gains, if he constantly lives 
in that manner, heavenly bliss." 

The hermit and ascetic periods of life were held up to 
Brahmans as the culmination of their existence. "We do 
The hermit n °t know how many Brahmans went through 
in the forest, this discipline; but it is recommended to the 
householder, that when his skin becomes wrinkled and 
his hair grey, and he has grandchildren, he should go 
and live in the forest, taking with him the sacred fire 
and implements for the domestic sacrifices which he is 
still to perform, and there live in control of his senses, 
wearing his hair in braids, and the beard and nails un- 
dipped. He was still to recite the Veda, and to be patient 
of hardships, friendly towards all, of collected mind, com- 
passionate to all living creatures. He must feed only on 
special kinds of vegetables. A considerable number of 
austerities are enjoined on him, including exposure to 
fires in summer, living under the open sky and clothed 
in wet garments in winter, with other performances con- 

1 Sati means, " she who is faithful," and is a feminine form of the 
root seen in " sooth "— truth. 



THE BRAHMAN'S SUPERIORITY. 49 

ducive to short life, much study not being forgotten. 
Finally he may, subsisting only on water and air, walk 
straight on " until his body sinks to rest " ; then, having 
got rid of his body, he is exalted in the world of Brahma, 
tree from sorrow and fear. 

The forest dweller who has not found liberation may 
become a mendicant ascetic, absolutely silent, caring for 
no enjoyment, indifferent to everything, but Themendi- 
concentrating his mind on Brahma. " Let him cant ascetic, 
not desire to live, let him not desire to die ; let him wait 
for his appointed time as a servant waits for the pay- 
ment of his wages." " Let him patiently bear hard 
words, let him not insult anybody, and let him not be- 
come anybody's enemy. . . . Against an angry man 
let him not in return show anger, let him bless where 
he is cursed." These are only a few of the numerous 
precepts for promoting the high spiritual life of the 
ascetic. Meditation, self-repression, equability, content- 
ment, forgiveness, honesty, truthfulness, abstention from 
anger, purification, etc. — these may be said to sum up 
the moral law for all Brahmans. 

We can only lightly dwell on the duties of a king and 
of government as described in Manu. The king re- 
presents Agni and Indra, the Maruts, Varuna, The duties 
Yama and other gods, out of all of whom he is of a ^s- 
supposed to be framed; thus he is "a great deity in 
human form." He has divine authority, is to protect all 
creatures, and be an incarnation of the law. He must 
have seven or eight ministers, the chief of whom must 
be a Brahman. Punishment is his chief instrument, in- 
deed the only maintainer of the law. He is, ^g 
however, to be obedient to the Brahmans, and Brahman's 
be determined not to retreat in battle. The su P eriorit y 
Brahmans are to be the judges, either by themselves, or 
as assistants to the king. The criminal code is marked 
by much severity, and not a little inconsistency. Offences 
by the low-born against the higher classes were very 
severely punished, often with great cruelty ; while Brah- 
mans were very leniently treated. A Brahman's life was 
not to be taken, however grave or numerous his crimes. 

E 



50 THE BRAHMANISM OF THE CODES. 

Among " mortal sins " are : killing a Brahman, drinking 
spirituous liquor, stealing the gold of a Brah- 
man, adultery with a Guru's (spiritual teacher's) 
wife, associating with those who did those things, falsely 
attributing to oneself high birth, falsely accusing one's 
teacher, forgetting or reviling the Yeclas, slaying a friend, 
giving false evidence, stealing a deposit, incest and forni- 
cation ; but the classification and punishments show a 
Punishment very crude estimate of their relative import- 
and penances. a nce. Many punishments are designed as 
penances, to remove the guilt of the offender. Various 
ordeals are prescribed to ascertain if a witness speaks 
the truth, such as fire and water. Altogether, the rules 
of evidence do not inspire us with the idea that the early 
Brahmans had invented very excellent machinery for dis- 
Faisenood covering truth ; and such statements as the 
excused, following are not calculated to show them in a 
favourable light. In some cases a man who, though 
knowing the facts to be different, gives false evidence 
from a pious motive, does not lose heaven. Whenever 
the death of a Sudra, a Vaisya, a Kshatriya, or of a 
Brahman would be caused by the declaration of the truth, 
a falsehood may be spoken. In cases of violence, of theft 
and adultery, of defamation and assault, the judge must 
not examine witnesses too strictly. But he is to exhort 
all witnesses to speak the truth, promising them bliss 
after death and fame here below, while false witnesses 
are firmly bound by Varuna and are helpless during one 
hundred existences. 

Reverting once more to the- question of castes, we may 
note that the Brahman was supposed to have three births; 
the first his natural birth r the second his in- 
as e * vestiture with the girdle of Munga grass, the 
third his initiation to perform the greater sacrifices ; the 
Kshatriyas or warriors, and the Vaisyas or cultivators, 
w r ere only twice born, the second birth happening on 
their investiture with the sacred thread. "We may recall 
here that the term caste is not an original Hindu or even 
an ancient word. It is believed to be an adaptation of a 
Portuguese w r ord, casta, race or family, from the Latin 



HINDU RELIGIOUS FANATICS. 




YOGIS (HINDU RELIGIOUS FANATICS), 



52 THE BRAHMAN1SM OF THE CODES. 

castus, pure. The word used in Manu is varnd, or colour, 
while in later Hindu phrase caste is denoted by jail or 
jat, meaning birth. 

The code of Manu was forced to recognise that wide 
departures took place from the original purity of caste, 
Growth of although maintaining that only those born of 
mixed castes. W edded wives of equal castes were to be con- 
sidered as belonging to the same caste as their fathers. 
Hence distinct names were given to the offspring between 
the different castes ; some of these are declared to be 
ferocious in manners and delighting in. cruelty. These 
had already been assigned to distinct occupations, which 
increased as the Hindu life grew more settled and diversi- 
fied. Some of them are said to be inherently fit only for 
low and degrading offices, and unworthy to receive the 
sacramental rites. The modern development of the caste 
system must be dealt with later. 

Finally, as to the important belief in the transmigration 
of souls, which in the Hindu system plays so large a part, 
Transmigra- it appears to have been wielded by the Brah- 
tion of souls, mans very much as a mode of influencing 
actions on earth. Evil actions done with the body were 
to be punished by being born next in something in- 
animate, those done by speech were followed by birth as 
a bird or a beast, while sins of the mind, such as covetous- 
ness, evil thoughts, and adherence to false doctrines, led 
to re-birth in a low caste. Self-control in all these respects 
led to emancipation from all births and final blessedness. 
This scheme is elaborated in great detail, many grada- 
tions being fixed in descending order, each the just 
recompense for some fault. . The specific reason for many 
of these cannot be imagined, although some are intel- 
ligible enough, such as these : "men who delight in doing 
injury become carnivorous animals ; thieves, creatures 
consuming their own kind ; for stealing grain a man 
becomes a rat, for stealing meat, a vulture/' etc. Sensual 
men are said to suffer in a succession of dreadful hells and 
agonizing births, slavery, imprisonment in fetters. The 
last pages of Manu are devoted to further glorification of 
Brahmans who do their duty, and to the extolling of the 



EFFICACY OF THE CODE. 53 

Self or Soul in all tilings; u for he who recognises the 
universe in the Self, does not give his heart to unrighteous- 
ness. ... He who thus recognises the Self through 




the Self in all created beings, becomes equal-minded to- 
wards all, and enters the highest state, Brahman. A 
twice-born man, who recites these Institutes, revealed by 



54 THE BRAHMANISM OF THE CODES. 

Maim, will be ahva3 r s virtuous in conduct, and will reach 
whatever condition he desires." 

It must be owned that the system thus developed in 
Efficacy of Maim does not fail for lack of penalties or of 
the code, precise directions. Its efficacy is to be sought 
in its gradual growth, its accordance with the ideas 
of creation, supreme power, and morality which had 
long been current, and its promulgation by those who 
had most intellectual power and most capability of sway- 
ing the conduct of men. Thus w r e may imagine the 
extraordinary influence which the sacred class of Brah- 
mans attained in early Indian history, an influence which 
has been sufficient to perpetuate itself to our own times, 
which remains very great, and w r hich more than two 
thousand years ago was sufficient to produce by exaggera- 
tion and reaction the remarkable religion of Buddhism. 
But looking on it calmly, while admitting the loftiness 
of many of its precepts and imaginings, it cannot be said 
that its general moral elevation was great. The scheme 
was powerful enough to bind together society for centuries, 
but not powerful enough to diffuse itself widely among 
other races, or to become more than a Hindu religion. 

There is one other code to which we must refer, besides 
that of Manu, namely the Darma Shastra of Yajnavalkya, 
Code of possibly dating from the first century a.d. 
Yajnavalkya. Jt is still the chief authority in the school of 
Benares. It is much shorter than that of Manu, is more 
systematic, and represents a later stage of development. 
It adds to the sources of authority the Puranas and 
various traditional and scholastic authorities. To some 
extent caste is carried farther, and a Brahman is for- 
bidden to have a Sudra as a fourth wife. We have 
reached a period when writing is in regular use, and 
written documents . are appealed to as legal evidence ; 
coined money is in use. It is evident that Buddhism 
has arisen, and that the shaven heads and yellow gar- 
ments of its votaries are well known ; the king is also 
recommended to found monasteries for Brahmans, an 
evident imitation of Buddhists. 

Compare the following philosophy with that of Manu. 



ROCK-TEMPLES OF INDIA. 55 

" The success of every action depends on destiny and on 
a man's own effort ; but destiny is evidently nothing 
but the result of a man's act in a former state of existence. 
Some expect the whole result from destiny or from the 
inherent nature ; some expect it from the lapse of time ; 
and some from a man's own effort ; other persons of wiser 
judgment expect it from a combination of all these." 
(M.W.) But there is no sufficient difference in the 
nature of the precepts to make it necessary to quote 
further. 

We may here refer briefly to the celebrated rock- 
temples of India, excavated in solid rock many centuries 
ago, but by 110 means confined to Hinduism, having often 
been excavated by Buddhists and Jains. Some of them 
display surprising skill in construction as well as in 
sculpture. Many are ornamented with figures of the 
gods or scenes from their supposed adventures. The 
majority of the Brahmanic temples are dedicated to Siva. 
The most famous are those of Elephant a, an island in 
Bombay harbour ; one of them contains a colossal 
trimurti, or three-faced bust, representing Siva in his 
threefold character of creator, preserver, and destroyer. 
Many other caves, scarcely less famous, are at Ellora in 
the Nizam's dominions. 








THE KRISHNA AVATARA. 

(From a native picture.) 

CHAPTER III. 
jfflottrrn 3iufflut5m I. 

Reaction from Brahmanism— Triumph of Buddhism— Downfall of Indian 
Buddhism— The caste system— The Mahabharata— The Bhagavad-gita — 
Krishna— Incarnations of the Deity— Immortality taught— The Rama- 
yana— Partial incarnations— Conquests of Rama— Resistance of Brah- 
manism— Kumarila Bhatta— Sankara— Worship of the supreme Brahman 
— The Smartas— Vishnu worship— The Puranas— The Vishnu Purana— 
Description of the Supreme Being— Great Vishnuite preachers— Rama- 
nand— Kabir— Chaitanya— Influence of Buddhism— The linga and the 
salagram— Brahma— Vishnu the preserver— Incarnations of Vishnu- 
Rama— Krishna— Buddha— Jagannath— Lakshmi— Siva the destroyer- 
Ascetic Sivaites— Durga— Kali— Ganesa— Gangsa— Local deities and de- 
mons—Worship of animals and trees— Deification of heroes and saints. 



I 



N our chapters on Buddhism, it will be shown that 
the new religion which deposed Brahmanism from 



5C 



TRIUMPH OF BUDDHISM. 57 

supremacy in India, and greatly depressed it for more 
than a thousand years, was partly a natural Reaction 
reaction from the haughty sway of the Br ah- from _ 
mans and their reliance 011 ritual and sacrifice. Bralimaillsm - 
and partly the development of a movement which had 
already risen within the older system. The educated 
Brahmans came to see that the Vedic gods were poetic 
imaginations which could not all be true, and that whereas 
various gods — the Sun. the Encompassing Sky, the Dawn, 
etc. — were represented as independent and supreme, they 
must be emanations of one supreme Cause. While they 
continued to uphold the popular ideas about the gods, and 
to conduct the customary sacrifices, they began to develop 
a theological literature, of part of which we have already 
given an account, the Upanishads and the Puranas, 
teaching the unity of God and the immortality of the 
soul, still mingled with many myths and superstitions. 
Their new S3 T stem involved the brotherhood of man ; but 
it was reserved for Gautama to break through all the old 
conventions, and to found the great system of Triumph of 
Buddhism. All classes found in it something Buddhism, 
that was lacking in Brahmanism, and rejoiced in the 
upsetting of many things that had been irksome. From 
the third century b.c. to the fourth century a.d., Buddhism 
increasingly triumphed, until it was professed by the 
majority of the Indian people. But in the fifth century 
the Buddhists were persecuted by the adherents of the 
old religion. By the end of that century the Buddhist 
leaders had taken refuge in China, and many of its priests 
had carried the faith to new lands. As late as the 
twelfth century a few remained in India, but now they 
are non-existent, unless Jainism be regarded as represent- 
ing the old Buddhism. But the influence of Buddhism 
upon Brahmanism had been profound, and modern Hindu- 
ism is a very different thing from the religion of the 
Vedas and Brahmanas. Indeed, Sir W. W. Hunter terms 
modern Hinduism the joint product of Buddhism and 
Brahmanism. The latter was active and slowly changing 
during all the time of the predominance of the former, 
and we have the testimony of Greeks in Alexander's time 



58 MODERN HINDUISM, 

and later, and of Buddhist priests from China who visited 
India in the fifth and seventh centuries, that Brahman 
priests were equally honoured with Buddhist monks, and 
temples of the Hindu gods adjoined the Buddhist religious 
houses. 

The Hindus date the final triumph over Buddhism 

from the preaching of Kumarila, a Bengal Brahman, who 

Downfall of powerfully advanced the Vedic teaching of a 

Indian personal Creator and supreme Being, against 
Buddhism, ^q impersonal negations of Buddhism ; but he 
also shone as a persecutor. Sir W. W. Hunter, however, 
traces the change which followed to deeper-seated causes 
— such that the rise of Hinduism was a natural develop- 
ment of racial characters and systems. According to him, 
it rests upon the caste system and represents the coalition 
of the old Vedic faith with Buddhism, as well as with 
the rude rites of pre-Aryan and Mongolian races. We 
cannot here give an account of the caste system. The 
immense subdivision of castes is the result partly of inter- 
marriages, partly of varied occupations, partly of locality, 
The caste partly of the introduction of outside tribes to 

system. Hinduism. Religious exclusiveness and trades 
unionism, once grasped, made easy progress, and converted 
India into a vast grouping of separate classes. Caste is 
a powerful instrument for personal discipline and the 
maintenance of convention and custom, but it is a 
weakener of united popular action and national unity. 
Its great force is in its hereditary instincts and in social 
and religious excommunication. The offender against 
caste laws may be fined by his fellow-members, may be 
forbidden to eat or intermarry with them, and may be 
boycotted by the community. 

We cannot understand the growth of modern Hinduism 
without reference to the two great Indian epic poems, 
The the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. The 
Mahahharata-former is a vast aggregation of poems and 
episodes, arranged into a continuous whole, and is the 
longest poem in the world, being fourteen times as long 
as the Iliad. It includes many portions dating back to 
Vedic times, with others of later elate up to a compara- 



THE BHAGAVAD-GITA. 59 

lively modern time. It includes the whole cycle of Hindu 
mythology since the Vedas, and practically represents a 
deification of human heroes, side by side with views of 
Divine incarnation. Its central story relates a prehistoric 
struggle between two families descended from the Moon 
god for a tract of country around Delhi. It is believed 
to have existed in a considerably developed form five or 
six centuries before Christ, but it has been greatly modi- 
fied by subsequent Brahmanic additions, especially didactic 
and religious in their nature, teaching the submission of 
the military to the Brahman power. 

The Bhagavad-gita, or song of Bhagavat, is the mosb 
important episode of this great epic, Bhagavat being a 
term applied to Krishna, one of the incarna- TheBiia- 
tions of Vishnu, the Pervader and Preserver, gavad-gita. 
Krishna makes a revelation to the hero Arjuna, just before 
a great battle, in order to remove his scruples about 
destroying human life. This revelation in effect teaches 
the supremacy of the soul over the body, and in fact its 
eternity of existence in the supreme Being, so that death 
cannot harm it. Duty to caste and its obligations is 
highly extolled ; but the poem is most remarkable to us 
for its exposition in poetry of the Vedantist philosophy 
of Pantheism, which teaches that all the universe is indeed 
Brahma, from whom all proceeds and to whom all returns. 
Krishna, in giving an account of himself to Arjuna, says (we 
quote from Sir Monier- Williams's " Indian Wisdom ") : — 

"I am the ancient sage, without beginning, 
I am the ruler and the all-sustainer, 
I am incomprehensible in form. 
More subtle and minute than subtlest atoms ; 
I am the cause of the whole universe ; 
Through me it is created and dissolved; 
I dwell as wisdom, in the heart of all. 
I am the goodness of the good, I am 
Beginning, middle, end, eternal time, 
The birth, the death of all. I have created all 
Out of one portion of myself. Think thou on me, 
Have faith in me, adore and worship me, 
And join thyself in meditation to me. 
Thus shalt thou come to me, Arjuna ; 
Thus shalt thou rise to my supreme abode, 



60 MODERN HINDUISM. 

"Where neither sun nor moon have need to shine, 
For know that all the lustre they possess is mine.'' 

Among other revelations of Krishna, he states that he 
is born on earth from .time to time for the estab- 
lishment of righteousness. In lauding work, 
Krishna says : — 

" Know that work 
Proceeds from the supreme. I am the pattern 
For man to follow ; know that I have clone 
All arts already ; nought remains for me 
To gain by action, yet I work for ever 
Unweariedly, and this whole universe 
Would perish if I did not work my work." 

It will be evident from these quotations that the Bha- 
gavad-gita contains much lofty thought ; indeed, it lias 
been praised as unequalled for sublimity of conception, 
reasoning, and diction. Yet it is in no slight degree 
parallel with Buddhist ideas, in preaching deliverance 
through self-renunciation and devotion, ending in absorp- 
tion in the deity. Although women are not raised by it, 
yet the declaration of Krishna is, that all who resort to 
him will reach the highest. He says : ' " I have neither 
friend nor foe ; I am the same to all ; and all who worship 
me dwell in me and I in them. To them that love me, 
I give that devotion by which they come at last to me. 
No soul that has faith, however imperfect the attainment, 
or however the soul have wandered, shall perish, either in 
this world or in another. He shall have new births till, 
purified and made perfect, he reaches the supreme abode." 

The repetition of incarnations of deity is an important 
feature in this teaching; and from this root has developed 
incarnations the great "avatar" or incarnation idea of the 
of the deity. Hindus, the idea being that the deity is con- 
tinually being manifested for the guidance arid protection 
of his people. Throughout the transition period, from 
Brahmanism to Hinduism, varying forms of Krishna, as 
the incarnation of Vishnu 1 are continually described. 

1 Vishnu is a god named in the Big- Veda as a form of the sun 
striding across the heavens in three paces, 



VISHNU. 



61 



He appears as the protecting hero and saint and sage, 
the overcomer of evil spirits, the popular wonder- 
worker. 

From some of the characteristics of Krishna it has been 
imagined that he has been derived from Christ : but there 




visnxu. 
(from a native picture.) 



is no proof of this, and, indeed, the multiplication and 
varying form of the incarnations tells against this idea. 
In fact, the belief proceeds from a date before the Christian 
era. The meaning of the word Krishna, " black, " also 
makes against the Christian relationship ; it rather points 



62 MODERN HINDUISM. 

to respect for common humanity of black and white alike ; 
for Krishna is the teacher of Arjuna, u white." 

This doctrine about Krishna brings into view the essen- 
tial link by which the intellectual Brahmans connected 
immortality their higher philosophy with the common be- 

taugkt. liefs of the people. Krishna manifests the 
noblest traits of Hindu genius ; he also condescends to 
the most ordinary pursuits of men and children, and even 
to sportive recreation. The higher doctrine of immor- 
tality is preached in such passages as the following in the 
Bhagavad-gita, u There is an invisible, eternal existence, 
beyond this visible, which does not perish when all things 
else perish, even when the great days of Brahman's crea- 
tive life pass round into night, and all that exists in form 
returns unto Grod whence it came ; they who obtain this 
never return. . . . Bright as the sun beyond dark- 
ness is He to the soul that remembers Him in meditation, 
at the hour of death, with thought fixed between the 
brows, — Him the most ancient of the wise, the primal 
ruler, the minutest atom, the sustainer of all, — in the hour 
when each finds that same nature on which he meditates, 
and to which he is conformed. . . . They who put 
their trust in me, and seek deliverance from decay and 
death, know Brahma, and the highest spirit, and every 
action. They who know me in my being, my person, 
and my manifested life, in the hour of death, know me 
indeed." 

The other great epic poem, the Eamayana, or the 
goings of Rama, is a chronicle which relates primarily to 
The another region of Aryan conquest, Oudh, and 
Ramayana. then recounts the advance of the Aryans into 
Southern India. It represents perhaps a later stage than 
the earlier parts of the Mahabharata, but was arranged 
into something like its present form a century earlier — 
perhaps about the beginning of the third century B.C. 
Like the sister epic, it presents the Brahman idea of the 
Godhead in the form of an incarnation, Rama, of Vishnu, 
to destroy a demon. Briefly stated, the story is as follows. 
It begins by relating the sonlessness of the king of Oudh, 
a descendant of the sun-god. After a sacrifice to the 



KUMAR1LA BHATTA. 63 

gods, four sons were born of Lis three wives, the eldest, 
Kama, having one-half the nature of Vishnu ; the second, 
Bharata, one-fourth ; and two others, twins, partial 
having each one-eighth. This exemplifies the incarnations. 
Brahman doctrine of partial incarnations, Krishna being 
a full incarnation : and, beyond this, there might be 
fractional incarnations of the Divine essence, in men, 
animals and even inanimate objects. The wonderful 
youth, marriage to Sita, and exile of Rama, are next 
told, and the refusal of Bharata to take the kingdom 
on his father's death. Rama continuing an exile, Eavana, 
the demon king of the south, heard of his wife's beauty, 
and carried her off in a magical chariot to conquests 
Ceylon. Kama then makes alliances with the of Rama. 
aboriginal peoples of Southern India, invades Ceylon, slaj's 
Eavana and. delivers his wife, who has to undergo the 
further trial of being suspected of infidelity and banished. 
She is the type of womanly devotion and purity, and 
after sixteen years' exile is reconciled to her husband, 
with whom she is after all translated to heaven. 

Such was the framework in which the change from 
ancient Brahmanism to modern Hinduism was developed 
and taught. These epics bear witness to the fact that 
notwithstanding the great extension of Buddhism in 
India, there was no time when Brahmanism was not 
working with great skill and intellectual force to adapt 
itself to the changed conditions. At a council Resistance of 
of the Buddhist monarch Siladitya at Kanauj Brahmanism. 
on the Ganges in a.d. 631, while a statue of Buddha was 
installed on the first day, on the second an image of the 
Sun-god, on the third an image of Siva, the product of 
later Brahmanism, was inaugurated. A great series of 
Brahman apostles arose simultaneously with the decay of 
Buddhism, beginning with Kuniarila Bhatta, about a.d. 
750, who revived the old Brahman doctrine of Rumania 
a personal God and Creator, and reconverted Bhatta. 
many of the people. He was the first of a long line of 
influential religious reformers, who all solemnly cut them- 
selves off from the world like Buddha, and give forth a 
simple message, readily understood, including in essence, 



64 



MODERN HINDUISM. 



according to Sir "W. AV. Hunter, " a reassertion, in some 
form, of the personality of God and the equality of men 
in His sight." 

Sankara Acharya was the disciple of Kumarila, still 
more famous than his master ; he popularised the late 
. Vedantist philosophy as a national religion, 

and " since his short life in the eighth or ninth 
century, every new Hindu sect has had to start with a 
personal God' 1 ' (Hunter). He taught that the supreme 
God Brahma was distinct from the old Brahman triad, 




SIVA, BEAIUTA, AND VISHNU. 



and must be worshipped by spiritual meditations, not by 
sacrifices ; and he perpetuated his teaching by fouuding 
a Brahman sect, the Smartas. However, he still allowed 
the practice of the Veclic rites, and worship of the deity 
in any popular form ; and it is claimed by popular tra- 
dition that he founded many of the Hindu sects of the 
present day. Siva worship is supposed to be specially his 
work, though it existed long before; and he has ever 
been represented by his followers as an incarnation of 
Siva. Siva is, as we have said before, the Ruclra or 



WORSHIP OF THE SUPREME BRAHMAN, 65 

Storm-god of the Rig- Veda, recognised as the Destroyer 
and Reproducer. He was worshipped contemporaneously 
with the Buddhist ascendency and is highly spoken of in 
the Mahabharata; but Sankara's followers elevated his wor- 
ship till it became one of the two chief forms of Hinduism. 




SIVA. 

(From a native picture.) 

The doctrine of Sankara just referred to, that Brahma, 
or Brahman, is the supreme God, distinct from WorsMp0 f 
the triad Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva, who are the supreme 
manifestations of him. The supremeBrahman Brahman - 
is the absolute, having 110 form nor shape, self-exis- 

F 



66 MODERN HINDUISM. 

tent, illimitable, free from imperfection. There are but 
a few worshippers of Brahman or Brahma alone. As 
creator he is believed to have finished his work, and 
there is now only one temple to him, at Pushkara in 
Ajmir. "Ward, in 1818, wrote : " The Brahmans in their 
morning and evening worship repeat an incantation con- 
taining a description of the image of Brahma ; at noon 
they present to him a single flower ; at the time of burnt- 
offering, ghee is presented to him. In the month of 
Magh, at the full moon, an earthen image of him is 
worshipped, with that of Siva on his right hand and 
Vishnu on his left." 

The Smartas of Southern India are a considerable sect 
who follow the philosophic teaching of Sankara. There 
are numerous religious houses connected with 
' this sect, acknowledging the headship of the 
monastery of Sringiri, in the western Mysore hills ; and 
the chief priest of the sect, the head of this monastery, 
is specially acknowledged by all Sivaite worshippers, 
who regard Sankara as one of the incarnations of Siva. 

u The worship of Vishnu," says Sir W. W. Hunter, "in 

one phase or another, is the religion of the bulk of the 

Vishnu middle classes ; with its roots deep down in 

worship, beautiful forms of non-Aryan nature-worship, 
and its top sending forth branches among the most refined 
Brahmans and literary sects. It is a religion in all things 
graceful. Its gods are heroes or bright friendly beings, 
who walk and converse with men. Its legends breathe 
an almost Hellenic beauty." This is the lofty position 
assigned to Vishnuism by one of the most learned and 
most impartial students — a very different opinion from 
that which regards the car of Juggernaut as the repre- 
sentative of all that is vile. 

The doctrines of modern Hinduism, in their learned 

aspect, are contained in the Puranas (in Sanskrit), a 

The series of eighteen treatises, in which various 

Puranas. Brahmans expound, in lengthy dialogues, the 
supremacy of Vishnu or Siva. The chief of them is 
the Vishnu Purana, dating from the eleventh century, 
but containing, as the word " purana " signifies, ancient 



DESCRIPTION OF THE SUPREME BEING. 67 

traditions, some of which descend from Vedic times ; 
and others are traceable to the two great The Vishnu 
epics. " It includes a complete cosmogony or Purana. 
account of primary creation, accounts of the destruction 
and renovation of worlds, genealogies of gods and patri- 
archs, the reigns of the Manus, the institutes of society, 
including caste and burial rites, and the history of the 
princes of the solar and lunar races, a life of Krishna, 
and an account of the end of the world. It is not neces- 
sary to dwell upon its contents, which would require a 
volume. Pantheism is woven into the general scheme, 
God and Nature being identified, and Vishnu, as supreme 
God, being incarnated in Krishna. 

The style of the Vishnu Purana on its philosophical 
side may be gathered from the following extracts, relating 
to the supreme deity, as translated by H. H- Description of 
Wilson : ki Who can describe him who is not the supreme 
to be apprehended by the senses, who is the Bem ff« 
best of all things, and the supreme soul, self-existent ; 
who is devoid of all the distinguishing characteristics of 
complexion, caste, or the like, and is exempt from birth, 
vicissitude, death, or decay ; who is always, and alone ; 
who exists everywhere, and in whom all things here 
exist ; and who is thence named Vasudeva (the resplen- 
dent one in whom all things dwell) ? He is Brahma, 
supreme lord, eternal, unborn, imperishable, undecaying ; 
of one essence ; ever pure as free from defects. He, 
that Brahma, was all things, comprehending in his own 
nature the indiscrete (spirit) and the discrete (matter), 
He then existed in the forms of Purusha and Kala. 
Purusha (spirit) is the first form of the supreme. Next 
proceeded two other forms — the discrete and the in- 
discrete ; and Kala (time) was the last. These four the 
wise consider to be the pure and supreme condition of 
Vishnu. These four forms, in their due proportions, 
are the causes of the production of the phenomena of 
creation, preservation, and destruction. Vishnu being 
thus discrete and indiscrete substance — spirit and time- 
sports like a playful boy, as you shall learn by listening 
to his frolics." Here it should be noted that the creation 



63 



MODERN HINDUISM. 



of the world is very commonly considered by the Hindu 
to be the sport or amusement of the supreme Being. 

The life of Krishna, as given by this Purana, is so 
full of fabulous marvels as to read like an Arabian Night's 
story, without its charm. It is sufficient to say that this 




RAVANA. 

(From a native picture. See account of Ramayana, p. 63.) 

Purana did not work the great development of Vishnu 

Great worship, which was due to a series of Vish- 

vishnuite nuite preachers, beginning with Ramanuja in 

preachers. ^ Q -^2th century, rising against the cruel 

doctrines of the Sivaites. It was not till the end of the 

13th or beginning of the 14th century that the great 



RAMANAND. 



69 



development of popular religion in the name of Vishnu 
took place, under the apostolic leadership of 
Eamanand. This teacher had his headquarters 
in a monastery at Benares, and travelled from place to 




%mmm$m 



KALI DANCING ON SIVA. 
{From a native picture.) 



place in Northern India. He chose twelve disciples from 
the despised castes of the barbers, leatherdressers, 
weavers, and the like, who, like the Buddhist monks, 
had to forsake the world, and depend solely on alms, 
while they went about teaching religion. They ad- 



7o MODERN HINDUISM. 

dressed the people in the vernacular Hindi , and largely 
helped to make it a literary language. The inclusion of 
lower-caste men among Ramanand's chief disciples is a 
proof that his reaction was directed against Brahman 
exclusiveness ; and it embraced many features of Bud- 
dhism, including the monasteries or retreats for the 
mendicants. 

Kabir, the greatest of RamanancVs disciples, is notable 
for his effort to combine the Mohammedans with the 
Hindus in one religious fraternitj^. The caste 
system and Brahman arrogance, as well as 
image-worship, found in him a strong opponent. He 
taught that the god of the Hindu is the same as the god 
of the Mahometan. " To Ali (Allah) and to Rama " 
(writes one of his disciples) "we owe our life, and should 
show like tenderness to all who live. What avails it to 
wash your mouth, to count your beads, to bathe in holy 
streams, to bow in temples, if, while you mutter your 
prayers or journey on pilgrimage, deceitfulness is in your 
heart? The Hindu fasts every eleventh day; the Mus- 
sulman on the Ramazan. Who formed the remaining 
months and days, that you should venerate but one ? 
. . . Behold but one in all things. He to whom the 
world belongs, He is the father of the worshippers alike 
of Ali and of Rama.' 7 Kabir recognised in all the varied 
lots and changes of man, his hopes and fears and religious 
diversities, the one Divine Spirit ; when this was re- 
cognised, Maya, or illusion, was over, and the soul found 
rest. This was to be obtained, not by burnt-offerings or 
sacrifices, but by faith and meditation on the supreme 
Being, and by keeping his holy names for ever on the 
lips and in the heart. Kabir had a vast number of 
followers, especially in Bengal ; the headquarters of his 
sect is the Kabir Chaura at Benares. 

The worship of Juggernaut, more properly Jagannath 

(literally, the Lord of the world) dates only from the 

beginning of the 16th century, being mainly 

propagated by Chaitanya, who was so great 

a preacher of the Vishnuite doctrines that since his death 

he has been widely worshipped as an incarnation of 



IXFLUENCE OF BUDDHISM, 71 

Vishnu. He preached a religion of faith to Hindus and 
Mohammedans alike ; but he laid great stress on obedience 
to religious teachers. By contemplation rather than ritual 
he taught that the soul would find liberty from the im- 
perfections and sins of the body. After death the soul of 
the believer would dwell for ever in a heaven of perfect 
beauty, or in the presence of Vishnu himself, known in 
his supreme essence. 

After the death of Chaitanya there appeared teachers 
who lowered the spiritual level of Vishnuism, some 
preaching the religion of enjoyment, others giving in- 
creased importance to the idea of physical love ; one 
adoring the infant Krishna as the cowherd. Vallabha- 
Swami (sixteenth century) was one of the chief of these ; 
he established a ritual of eight services in which the 
image of Krishna as a lovely boy is bathed, anointed, 
sumptuously dressed and feci, and in which beautiful 
women and other sensual delights figure largely. Such 
a religion appealed largely to the well-to-do, the luxurious, 
and the sensually minded, and was made the pretext for 
self-indulgence. 

Before particularising the forms of modern Hindu wor- 
ship, we must briefly indicate the influence which Bud- 
dhism and other popular religions of India have influence of 
had on Hinduism. The brotherhood of man Buddhism. 
is implicitly if not explicitly recognised by many of the 
Hindu sects ; the Buddhist communities or monasteries 
are reproduced in the monastic houses of many Hindu 
brotherhoods. ■ Sir W. Hunter describes the rules of the 
Vishnuite communities as Buddhistic, with Brahmanical 
reasons. One of the brotherhoods of Kabir's followers 
has as its first rule the very Buddhistic one that the life 
neither of man nor of beast may be taken, the reason 
being that it is the gift of God. Truth is enjoined as 
the great principle of conduct ; for all ills and ignorance 
of God spring from original falsehood. Retirement from 
the world is commended, worldliness being hostile to 
tranquillity of soul and meditation on Gocl. Similarly 
the Buddhist trinity of ideas, Buddha, Dharma (the Law), 
and Samgha (the congregation) is largely present, more 



72 MODERN HINDUISM. 

or less openly, in Hinduism. Not the least strange con- 
junction of Hinduism with other religions is that in which 
Siva-worshippers visit Adam's Peak in Ceylon to worship 
the footprints of their deity. Buddhists revere the same 
impression as the impression of Buddha's foot, while 
Mohammedans revere it as a relic of Adam, the father 
of mankind. This is but a specimen of the common 
resorts of Hindu pilgrims, where Mussulman and Hindu 
alike revere some sacred object. 

Hindus also absorbed or adopted many rites and super- 
stitions of non-Aryan peoples, such as the serpent and 
The linga dragon- worship of the Nag as, reverence for 

and the crocodiles and generative emblems, fetish and 
saiagram. ^ ee wors ^p ? e ^ c< Tfee worship of generative 
emblems {linga) found a wide field among the Sivaites, 
whose god was the reproducer as well as destroyer ; while 
the fetish, or village, or local god, in the shape of an 
unhewn stone (known as saiagram) or a tree, usually the 
tulasi plant, became the usual symbols of the Vishnuite. 
In not a few cases their rites are little elevated above 
those of primitive savagery as conducted by low-caste 
Hindus. 

Coming now to a description of the chief Hindu gods 
as popularly worshipped, we find Brahma, the creator, 

v . represented as a red man with four heads, 

dressed m white, and riding upon a goose. 
Brahma's wife, Sarasvati, the goddess of wisdom and 
science, is depicted as a fair young woman with four 
arms ; with one right hand she presents a flower to 
Brahma ; in the other she holds a book of palm-leaves ; 
in one of her left hands she carries a string of pearls. In 
the Mahabharata she is called the mother of the Vedas. 
She is worshipped once a year in the same month as 
Brahma by all who have any learning ; and with this 
worship are connected pens, ink, paper, books, etc. 
Women take no part in this festival. 

Vishnu is adored by the Vishnuite sects as the equal 

or even the superior of Brahma, and is especially termed 

. the Preserver, exempt from impatience and 

passion. Various legends in the Puranas de- 



INCARNATIONS OF VISHNU. 75 

scribe the other gods as submitting to Vishnu, who is 
termed omniscient and almighty. In pictorial represen- 
tations Vishnu usually appears as a black man with four 
arms : in one hand a club is held, in a second a shell, in 
the third a discus, in the fourth a lotus, and he rides 
upon the Garuda bird. 

Sir Monier- Williams describes both Visknuism and 
Sivaism as forms of monotheism, because they set aside 
the coequal trinity Brahma, Vishnu and Siva in favour 
of their special god : but it may be doubted whether 
many of the Yishnuites can be called intelligent mono- 
theists, rather than superstitious worshippers of they 
know not what. The opinion of this great Indian scholar, 
that Yishnuism "is the only real religion of the Hindu 
peoples, and has more common ground with Christianity 
than any other non-Christian faith," muse be taken as 
having but a limited application when he has to qualify 
it by referring to c, the gross polytheistic superstitions 
and hideous idolatry to which it gives rise." We must 
acknowledge the distinguishing merit of Yishnuism to 
be, that it teaches intense devotion to a personal gocl, 
who exhibits his sympathy with human suffering and his 
interest in human affairs by frequent descents (avatars) 
upon earth. Of these we must give a brief account. 

As many as twenty-eight avatars of Vishnu have been 
enumerated in the Puranas. They represent the descent 
into human bodies, by birth from earthly incarnations 
parents, of a portion or the whole of the divine of Vishnu, 
essence of the god ; they do not interfere with the divine 
body of the god, which remains unchanged. Of these 
we may enumerate (1) the Fish, whose form Vishnu took 
to save Manu, the progenitor of mankind, from the uni- 
versal deluge. Manu obtained the favour of Vishnu by 
his piety, was warned of the coming deluge, and com- 
manded to build a ship, wherein he was to take the seven 
Bishis or patriarchs and the seeds of all living things. 
When the hood came, Vishnu, as the Fish, dragged the 
ship, by a cable fixed to a horn on his head, to a high 
crag where it was secured till the flood went down. The 
avatars of the tortoise, the boar, the man-lion, the dwarf, 



74 MODERN HINDUISM, 

and Rama with, tlie axe, we must pass over. The great 
Rama, Ramachandra, or the moon-like Rama, 
Rama " has been already referred to as the subject of 
the Ram ay ana. " Every man, woman, and child in 
India/' says Sir Monier- Williams, probably with some 
exaggeration, "is familiar with Rama's exploits for the 
recovery of his wife, insomuch that a common phrase for 
an ignorant person is 4 one who does not know that Sita 
was Rama's wife.' From Kashmir to Cape Comorin the 
name of Rama is on every one's lips. All sects revere it, 
and show their reverence by employing it on all occasions. 
For example, when friends meet, it is common for them 
to salute each other by uttering Rama's name twice. No 
name is more commonly given to children, and no name 
more commonly invoked at funerals and in the hour of 
death. It is a link of union for all classes, castes, and 
creeds." 

But Krishna is the most popular of all the incarnations 
of Vishnu, and is represented as manifesting his entire 
Krishna, the essence. He is especially the god of the lower 
preserver, orders, having been brought up among cow- 
herds and other peasants, with whom he constantly 
sported. A multitude of marvellous stories are told about 
him ; but it is evident from the history of Krishna litera- 
ture and practices that he, like Rama, is a deified hero. 
Sir Monier- Williams identifies him as a powerful chief of 
the Yadava tribe of Rajputs in central India east of the 
Jumna, while the original of Rama was a son of a king 
of Oudh. So possible is it to trace gods adored by multi- 
tudes of human beings to the exaggeration and deifica- 
tion of heroic men. 

Thus we shall be little surprised to find Buddha 
adopted as one of the incarnations of Vishnu, The Brah- 
mans account for this by saying that Vishnu, 
in compassion for animals, descended as Buddha 
in order to discredit the Vedic sacrifices. The Brah- 
manical writers, says Wilkins, " were far too shrewd to 
admit that one who could influence men as Buddha did 
could be other than an incarnation of deity ; and as his 
influence w r as in favour of teaching opposed to their own, 



SIVA TEMPLE, BENARES. 75 

they cleverly say that it was to mislead the enemies of 
the gocls that Buddha promulgated his doctrine, that 




SIVA TEMPLE. BENARES. 



they, becoming weak and wicked through their errors, 
might fall an easy prey.*' 



76 MODERN HINDUISM. 

Not content with incarnations that have taken place, 
the Vishnuites look for a future descent which they call 
the Kalki avatar. He is to appear at the end of the Kali 
age (which began with his descent as Krishna), when the 
world has become utterly wicked, and will be seen in the 
sky, seated on a white horse, wielding a drawn sword, for 
the destruction of the wicked and the restoration of the 
world to purity. 

AVe have not included Jagannath among the incarna- 
tions of Vishnu, both because it is believed that he is an 
appearance of Vishnu himself, and also because 
it is probable that he was originally the god 
of a non- Aryan tribe adopted into Hinduism. It is a 
sight of this god that is so vehemently desired, whether 
as he is bathed or dressed, or being drawn on his car. 
Chaitanya, the reformer, is another incarnation of Vishnu, 
according to the popular notion, although he lived in 
T , ,_ almost modern times. Lakshmi, the wife of 
Vishnu, is very considerably worshipped as the 
goddess of Love, Beauty, and Prosperity. She is repre- 
sented as of a bright golden colour, seated on a lotus, and 
having only the ordinary number of arms. 

Siva, the destroyer, is naturally represented as of a 
stern and vindictive disposition ; but yet this is com- 
siva, tiie patible with his being regarded as a beneficent 
destroyer, deity. Death being the transition to a new 
form of life, the Destroyer is truly the Re-creator, and 
this accounts for the meaning of his name — the Bright or 
Happy one. Siva is exclusively a post-Vedic god, though 
he has been identified by the Hindus with the Eudra of 
the Veclas, and numerous features of Siva's character and 
history are developed from those of Eudra. In the 
Eamayana, Eudra (Siva) is represented as marrying 
Uma. the daughter of Daksha; it is this same Uma 
who is much more widely known under the names of 
Parvati, Durga, and Kali. It is stated that a great 
quarrel arose between Siva and Daksha, his father-in- 
law. In this quarrel Uma gave herself voluntarily to 
the flames, and became a sati (suttee), and was reborn 
as Parvati. Siva then became an ascetic, living with 



SIVA, THE DESTROYER. 



11 




GANESA. LA.K9HMI. DURGA. SAEASVATI. KARTIKEYA. 

(From a native picture.) 

Parvati in the Himalayas, destroying demons. He is 
represented sometimes with. Parvati, wearing round his 
black neck a serpent and a necklace of skulls, and with 
an extensive series of emblems, such as a white bull on 
which he rides, a tiger's skin, etc. ; he has three eyes, 
one being in his forehead. As Mahadeva (the great god), 
which is his most usual name, he may be shown as an 
ascetic with matted hair, living in meditation and self- 



7S 



MODERN HINDUISM. 



discipline in a forest. It is said that Siva, in a quarrel 
with Brahma, cut off his fifth head, which, however, 
stuck to the destroyer's hand. To escape from a pursuing 
giant created by Brahma, Siva fled to Benares, where he 
became absolved from his sin and freed from the head 
of Brahma, thus causing Benares to become a specially 
sacred city. 

In consequence of Siva's patronage of the bull as his 
steed, a strange custom has arisen in connection with the 
funerals of Sivaites. "Whenever it is possible, a bull is 
set free to wander, and has a sacred character, so that 




BRAHMA AND SAEASVATI. 



no one dares to injure it ; sometimes as many as seven 
bullocks are thus set free. This is believed to secure the 
favour of Siva. Similarly, since lie was an ascetic, many 
of his followers pay court to him by a life of austerity 
and painful suffering. This was much more frequent in 
former times than now, for the British Government has 
discouraged or prohibited many of the most painful ex- 
Ascetic hibitions. Formerly many Siva worshippers 
Sivaites. W ould be swung from iron hooks fixed in their 
backs, or would jump from a height upon the edges of 
sharp knives. But it is not easy to put down such 



DURGA, 



79 



practices as the maintenance of the arms and legs in one 
position for years, the holding of the fist clenched till the 
nails grow through the palm, the keeping of silence or 
the fixing of the eye continuously upon the sun. There 
are still many thousands of these devotees in India. In- 
toxication is also freely indulged in by Sivaites during 
their worship, this being believed to be pleasing to the 
god. After all, Siva is most worshipped under the emblem 

of the Linga, although 

he is said to have a- 
thousand names. 

The wife of Siva oc- 
cupies a comparatively 
subordinate position as 
Uma and Parvati ; 
but as Durga she is a 
powerful warrior, with 
many stem 
and nerce 
qualities. In this char- 
acter she is represen- 
ted to have appeared 
in many incarnations, 
and is very widely wor- 
shipped. The name 
Durga was given to 
her as having slain a 
demon named. Durga. 
The tales about this 
are of the most mythi- 
cal and exaggerated 
nature. Notwithstand- 
ing her powers, Durga is portrayed w T ith a gentle and 
beautiful face and a golden colour ; but she has ten 
arms, holding various weapons, while her lion leans 
against one leg and her giant against the other. Of 
the various forms of Durga we can only refer to Kali 
(the black woman), probably some tribal goddess adopted 
into the Hindu series. She won a victory over giants by 
drinking their blood with the aid of Chandi, another form 




SASTHI. 

(From a native picture.) 



So MODERN HINDUISM. 

of Kali. The account of the image of Kali given later 
in describing one of the Bengal festivals will explain 

some of her qualities. Formerly human beings, 

as well as considerable animal sacrifices, were 
offered to Kali, a human sacrifice being said to please 
Kali for a thousand years. Cutting their flesh and burn- 
ing portions of their bodies were among the actions by 
which worshippers sought to please the goddess. The 
great number of Hindus who bear the name of Kali or 
Durga or Tara indicates her popularity down to the 
present clay. 

Granesa, the elder son of Siva and Parvati, the god of 

prudence and policy, having an elephant's head, indi- 

Gan eating his sagacious nature, is the god of 

Bengal shopkeepers ; he has a trunk, one tusk, 

and four hands. Kartikeya is the younger son of Siva 

and Parvati, and is called the god of war ; in southern 

India his name is Subramanya. Lastly, we must notice 

G Granga, the Granges, whose birth and doings 

are the subject of elaborate legends, and whose 
waters are believed to have power to cleanse from all sins, 
past, present, and future. A specially sacred spot is that 
where the Ganges meets the ocean, at Sagar Island, to 
which vast numbers of people flock each January, to 
bathe with joy in the flood, and to worship the long line 
of deities whose images are set up by priests who take 
toll of the pilgrims. 

But when w T e have exhausted the list of great gods, 
we have only touched as it were the more prominent of 
Hindu deities, which are popularly said to number three 
hundred and thirty millions. In fact, throughout India 
the old local deities and demons, so much noticed in 
Local deities China, hold extensive sway. Every village has 
and demons, its own special guardian mother, who has a 
husband associated with her as protector. But the mother 
is most worshipped, and is believed to be most accessible 
to prayer and offerings, and very liable to punish, and 
to inflict diseases if neglected. Many have a specialty, 
such as the prevention of a particular disease, or the 
giving of children. Many are deifications of notable 



LOCAL DEITIES AND DEMONS. 81 

women ; some are in effect devils, delighting in blood. 
All are believed to control secret operations of nature, 
and to have magic powers which may be imparted to 
worshippers. 

Some even go so far as to say that the predominant 
belief of the Hindus, especially in the villages, is a dread 
of evil spirits, who are believed to bring about all evils 
and diseases, and often have peculiar and special areas 
of destructiveness. They may have material bodies of a 
more ethereal structure than those of men, have differ- 
ences of sex, and possess the power of assuming any 
shape and moving through the air in any direction. 
Some of these are the Asuras, or demons created at the 
foundation of the world or by the gods (though originally 
the word meant simply beings of a godlike nature). We 
cannot go into their classes ; but it is to be noted that 
the majority of demons are believed to have been origin- 
ally human beings, whose evil nature lives after them as 
demons. All crimes, diseases, and calamities are due to 
special devils. They mostly require food, and especially 
the blood of living animals. Sometimes mounds of earth, 
piles of bricks, etc., do duty as shrines for their " wor- 
ship/' the offering of food and recital of incantations 
being the chief rites. Every village has its own demon. 
A volume might be occupied in describing the devil-cults 
of India. In the south, where they are believed to de- 
light in dancing, music, etc., ''when pestilence is rife in 
any district, professional exorcisers, or certain persons 
selected for the purpose, paint their faces, put on hideous 
masks, dress up in fantastic garments, arm themselves 
with strange weapons, and commence dancing. Their 
object is to personate particular devils, or rather perhaps 
to induce such devils to leave the persons of their victims 
and to occupy the persons of the dancers, who shriek, 
fling themselves about, and work themselves up into a 
frenzy of excitement, amid beating of tom-toms, blowing 
of horns, and ringing of bells. When the dancers are 
thoroughly exhausted, they sink down in a kind of trance, 
and are then believed to be gifted with clairvoyance 
and a power of delivering prophetic utterances. The 

G 



82 MODERN HINDUISM. 

spectators ask them questions about missing relatives or 
future events, and their deliverances are supposed to be 
oracular " (Monier- Williams). Many strange festivals 
are held in connection with this devil-worship in India, 
and the facts show how general must formerly have 
worship of been the practices now found among the more 
animals and savage races. The extensive animal worship 
trees. Q £ cows? serpents, monkeys, etc., and the wor- 
ship of trees still prevailing is another considerable sur- 
vival of more primitive times. It depends largely in 
India on the view taken of the sacredness of life, and 
the transmigration of the souls of men into animals. 
Deification of Again, the worship of great men seems even 
heroes and more deeply implanted in the Hindu than in 
samts. ^Ylq Chinese mind, and again and again great 
leaders, preachers, teachers or saints are deified, and 
regarded as incarnations of Vishnu or Siva ; and even 
men of moderate fame are after death honoured and 
worshipped, and a shrine is set up to them in the place 
where they were best known. Surety we have said 
enough to show that in every way the Hindus are very 
remarkable for their worship of the superior powers in all 
conceivable forms. 

[See "Oriental Religions: India," by S. Johnson, English and Foreign 
Philosophical Library. Sir W. W. Hunter's " India," vol. vi. of the " Im- 
perial Gazetteer of India," and also separately published. Eev. W. Ward's 
"View of the History, Religion and Literature of the Hindus, 1818." Rev. 
W. J. Wilkins's "Hindu Mythology and Modern Hinduism." Sir Monie'r- 
Williams's " Religious Thought and Life in India," and " Indian Wisdom ; " 
" Sacred Books of the East."] 





A GHAUT AT BENARES, WITH RECESSES FOE DEVOTEES. 



CHAPTER IV. 

i¥iotm*it Sutiratem n. 

Inclusiveness of Hindu worship— Variations in modern times— Religiousness 
of the Hindus— Household worship— The guru — Initiation— Elements of 
worship— Brahman ritual— Ritual of the common people— Temple ser- 
vices—Temple priests— Frequent festivals— Images— Festival ceremonies 
—Miracle-plays— Festivals of Durga— Pilgrimages to holy places- 
Benares— Temple of Bishesh war— Pilgrims' observances— Puri— The great 
temple— The images — Consecrated food— The Car festival— Reported im- 
molation of victims— A touching incident— Vishnu temple at Trichino- 
poly— Vishnuite sects— Sivaite sects— The Saktas— The Sikhs— The Sikh 
bible— The Brahmo Somaj— Rammohun Roy — Devendra Nath Tagore — 
Keshub Chundra Sen— The Universal Somaj— Fatalism— Maya, or illusion 
—Transmigration— Rewards and punishments— Death and cremation- 
Ceremonies for the dead— Moral state— Condition of wives— Position of 
women— Widows— Suttee— Disconnection of morals and religion— Hindu 
virtues. 

IN describing modern Hindu religions practices and 
worship, we are met witli a most varied assemblage 

83 



84 MODERN HINDUISM. 

of rites and customs, often mutually discordant, all of 
inciusiveness which have an equal claim to inclusion under 

of Hindu the name Hinduism. Never has there been a 

worship, religion- so expansive and all-inclusive. As a 
recent Bengal census report states, the term denotes 
neither a creed nor a race, neither a church nor a people, 
but is a general expression devoid of precision. It em- 
braces alike the disciples of Vedantic philosophy, the 
high-class Brahman, the low-caste worshippers of all the 
gods of the Hindu pantheon, and the semi-barbarous 
aborigines who are entirely ignorant of Hindu mythology, 
and worship a stone in time of sickness and danger. 
There is so great a difference in the prevalent forms of 
worship in different districts, there are so many personal 
and household ceremonies, differing according to rank or 
Variations in locality, and also there have been so many 
modern times, changes in modern times, that it is quite 
impossible to give more than a partial view in a limited 
space. The common people believe their worship has 
lasted unchanged for long ages, and Europeans have 
largely adopted the same view ; but while the Hindu 
nature remains very largely the same, variations in 
worship have been multitudinous. The great car festival 
of Jagannath is a modification of a Buddhist festival ; 
and it would be easy to multiply proofs of the changes 
in modern Hinduism. 

To a greater extent than any nation under the sun, the 

Hindus are a religious people. As Mr. Wilkins says, " To 

Religiousness treat of the ordinary life of the Hindu is to 

of the describe the Hindu religion. From before 

Hindus. \$£fa to the close of life periodical ceremonies 
are enjoined and, for the most part, practised. " Mostly 
they are survivals from animism, sorcery, astrology, and 
the like primitive beliefs. Thus, before the birth of a 
child the mother must not wear clothes over which birds 
have flown, must always have a knot in her dress round 
the waist, must not walk or sit in the courtyard, in order 
to avoid evil spirits must wear an amulet round her neck 
containing flowers consecrated to the god Baba Thakur, 
and must drink every day a few drops of water touched 



INITIATION. 85 

by this amulet. The naming of a boy is a most important 
ceremony, including a thanksgiving service, with gifts 
for the benefit of ancestors. The names of gods or deified 
heroes are often chosen, with the addition of another 
chosen by the astrologer, who calculates the horoscope of 
the child. 

Every household at all raised above poverty has a 
family priest (unless the head is himself a Brahman), 
who performs service, usually twice a day, in Household 
a room in which the family idol is kept. There worship, 
is also a platform opposite the entrance gate of the house, 
to receive the images made for the periodic festivals. 
The priest bathes and anoints the idol, recites a ritual, 
and presents offerings of fruits and flowers given by the 
family. The family, however, are not usually present, 
the priest being the only person whose presence is needed. 
The offerings are his perquisite, and he is supported 
entirely by one or two families. Of course he is present 
at all the important family ceremonies. 

The guru, or religious teacher, is a distinct functionary ; 
he is the initiator into the Hindu sects, and the teacher 
of their doctrines ; but he does not live in the The _ ru 
house of a disciple. The Hindus are taught 
that it is better to offend the gods than their guru, for 
the latter can intercede if the former are angry ; but if 
the guru is offended, no one can intercede, and the curse 
of the guru brings untold miseries. He usually visits his 
disciples only once a year, unless he wants more money. 
His treatment of them is very lofty ; and educated Hindus 
themselves describe the gurus as covetous, unprincipled, 
and familiar with vice. The best entertain- Initiation 
ment, new carpets and large presents are de- 
manded by them, and few teach anything of value. 
Every Hindu boy of eight years old (sometimes older) 
receives from his chosen guru, who need not be a Brah- 
man, a sacred text or mantra, called the seed text, which 
is taught to him in private, w T ith the name of the god 
selected by the guru for his especial worship. This text 
must never be repeated to others, and must be said over 
mentally or in whispers one hundred and eight times a 



85 



MODERN HINDUISM. 



day (the number is often counted by a rosary). The 
youth, before receiving it, fasts, bathes, and appears in 




TEMPLE OF KRISHNA, NEPAUL. 



spotless robes ; and if he be of the twice-born (Brahman, 
Kshatriya, or Vaisya) castes, he for the first time puts the 



BRAHMAN RITUAL. S7 

sacred thread round his neck. The relationship between 
the disciple and his guru continues throughout life. The 
present race of gurus are as a rule self-indulgent and 
ignorant men. The astrologer is an equally necessary 
personage to the household ; no journeys can be under- 
taken, no new business begun without his aid ; he fixes 
the hour for weddings and religious festivals, and numerous 
other matters depend absolutely on his pronouncing the 
time opportune. 

The great elements of Hindu worship may be defined 
as (1) mediation, (2) works of merit, (3) purchasing the 
favour or arresting the disfavour of the gods Elements 
by presents and sacrifices. The educated Hindu of worship, 
certainly has a high object, namely, to gain a realisation 
of his identity with the supreme Being, and to become 
reunited to Him. This state can only be approached by 
the Brahman ascetic ; all others not Brahmans must by 
religious works seek to be reborn in some future life in 
a higher caste, until they reach the bliss of Brahmanism. 

We have already indicated to some extent the ritual 
observances laid down for Brahmans in the sacred books. 
These are still kept up in essence ; and so Brahman 
numerous and laborious are they, that two ritual, 
hours both morning and evening, and an hour in the 
middle of the day, are occupied in fulfilling them all. 
The ascetics have plenty of time for this ; but Brahmans 
engaged in business find them very trying, and a few 
perform them by deputy, through a family priest. Pre- 
vious to any act of worship a complex ablution must be 
performed, with many details and prayers ; then the sun 
is worshipped, with meditation on Brahma, Vishnu, and 
Siva ; the text known as Grayatri is next repeated three 
times while holding the breath. It runs thus: u Om" 
(see p. 26), "earth, sky, heaven! We meditate on the 
adorable light of the resplendent generator (the sun), 
which governs our intellects, which is water, lustre, 
savour, immortal faculty of thought, Brahma, earth, sky, 
heaven." Thus, the light of the sun is taken as the type 
of all effulgent power ; and, as a native commentator 
says, "it must be worshipped by them who dread sue- 



83 MODERN HINDUISM. 

cessive births and deaths, and who eagerly desire beati- 
tude. . , ." But this prayer must be preceded by the 
repetition of the names of the seven worlds: 1. This 
earth. 2. The world of the unconscious dead awaiting 
the end of the present age. 3. The heaven of the good. 
4. The middle world. 5. The world of births, for animals 
destroyed at the end of each age. 6. The abode of the 
sons of Brahma. 7. The abode of Brahma the supreme. 
The word Om is to be repeated before and after this list. 
Many other ceremonies follow. The heart is supposed 
to be cleansed from sin by drawing up a little water by 
one nostril and expelling it by the other. One of the 
prayers is, "May whatever sin I have committed by 
night, in thought, word, or deed, be cancelled by day. 
Whatever sin is in me, may it be far removed." 

Before the reading of the Vedas, which follows, offerings 
of grain, etc., must be made to the gods, with invitations 
to them to be present and cheerful during the reading 
of the Veda ; then similar offerings must be made to 
Yama and the great progenitors of mankind, then for the 
Brahman's ancestors, and for all men, with the object 
of relieving the wants of sufferers in hells, or increasing 
the blessedness of those in heaven. After this exhausting- 
series of ceremonies, the Brahman, before taking his meal, 
offers a portion to deities, ancestors, and to all other 
beings, and must then feed his guests before partaking 
himself. Finally he must wash his hands and feet, after- 
wards tasting the water. As his food is given him, he 
says, " May heaven give thee!" and when he takes it 
he says, " May earth receive thee ! " He may not yet 
eat until he has passed his hand round the plate to 
separate it from the rest of the company, has offered five 
pieces to Yama, has made five oblations to breath, and 
has wetted hiseyes. In addition to these rites (which 
are here only partially given) there may be others signi- 
ficant of the particular sect to which the man belongs. 
Some will also wait for possible guests before taking food, 
for Brahma himself is represented as present in every 
guest. 

But it must be owned that the mass of the Hindus 



IDOLS IN TEMPLE OF JAGANNATH, PURL 89 
have no such elaborate daily ritual. The Sakta sect, it 




is true, and the more religious members of other sects, 



90 MODERN HINDUISM. 

have a considerable daily ceremony, all including much, 
ritual of the ^ e same ideas of purification of body, avert- 
common ing the anger of ghosts or ancestors, the 
people, offering of sacrifices to the great gods and 
goddesses, the recitation of their deeds as told in the 
Puranas, etc. But the majority of Hindus only bathe 
daily, and raise their hands and bow to the rising sun. 
Shopkeepers have an image or a picture of Ganesa in 
their shops, and burn a little incense before it in the 
morning ; Vishnuites have one or more of the god's 
emblems, especially the Salgrama (a fossil Ammonite), 
which they guard as if it were a living being, bathing it 
in the hot season, etc., and before these daily prayers are 
offered. The names of the gods are repeated a great 
number of times a day. However, on days when it is 
not very convenient to go through a long form, the Hindu 
will be content with repeating the text he was taught 
by his guru, which is often an unmeaning jingle. 

The public temples contain the principal religious ap- 
paratus of the mass of the Hindus. But it must not be 
Temple imagined from this that their temples are as 
services. a m le large. They are not, in general, places 
for the assemblage of numbers of people, and in fact they 
are mostly not more than ten or a dozen feet square. 
They are simply small buildings in charge of a priest, 
who takes care of an idol or image, which is supposed to 
be a special abode of the deity, and who receives offerings 
from worshippers coming one by one, and prostrating 
themselves before the image. Many of them have been 
built by public contributions, others by rulers, and many 
by well-to-do private persons anxious to secure merits to 
balance their sins. If they desire to make a large offering, 
they do not build a larger temple, but a number of smaller 
ones, seven, fourteen, twenty-one, or even more, some of 
which may never be used. Old temples of this kind are 
not repaired ; the new man does not wish to do what will 
but add to the merit of another. Usually the temple has 
an outer court, often with verandahs round, in which 
pilgrims may lodge when they come from a distance. 
The temple itself has two main portions — the vestibule, 



FREQUENT FESTIVALS. 91 

and the shrine containing the image, only large enough 
to admit the priest. One of the singular forms observed 
is the ringing of a bell to attract the notice of the god to 
his worshipper, who merely walks round, hands his gift 
to the priest, and bows to the image, 

The priests of these temples are all Brahmans, who 
alone perform the proper worship, usually without any 
spectators. The sacred texts are merely mut- Temple 
tered, and being in Sanskrit, are unintelligible priests, 
to the masses ; the texts, of course, differ according to the 
god or incarnation that is being worshipped. The es- 
sential character of this worship lies in the treatment of 
the image as if it were a living being, and the priest his 
servant ; w T ashing, dressing, feeding, decorating, putting 
to bed, etc., are al] gone through most carefully. With 
all this the people have nothing to do but to bring the 
offerings, which become the priests' property. Of course, 
in the case of deities whose rites require animal sacrifices, 
there is a great business of slaughtering victims, and 
afterwards disposing of the meat not required by the 
priests ; it finds a ready sale, being especially valuable 
owing to its sacred character. 

The regular daily worship of the temples forms but a 
small part of the religious life of the Hindu. His atten- 
tion is mainly given to the festivals wdiich Frequent 
occur so frequently, though somewhat irregu- festivals, 
larfy, as to occupy the place of the Christian Sunday. 
Most of the gods have special festival days, and others 
are only worshipped publicly on such days. Not only 
are special images of the gods made for the temples, but 
also for many private persons, whose houses become 
public temples for the day or days of the festival, and 
are visited by crowds of people. Usually, after the proper 
ceremonial has been gone through, various amusements — 
nautch dances, plays, musical entertainments — are pro- 
vided. Sometimes two or more adjoining villages will 
join in these celebrations, each householder paying his 
share. 

Images are provided for these festivals by regular 
tradesmen. They are largely based upon bamboos tied 



92 MODERN HINDUISM. 

together, and covered with hay and mud from a sacred 
stream. They are then dried in the sun, and 
afterwards painted, dressed, and otherwise de- 
corated according to some mode presented by the sacred 
law-books. When they are taken to the place of worship, 
the priest engaged for the occasion performs a ceremony 
called the giving of life, in which the god is invited to 
Festival reside in the image for one, two, or three days, 
ceremonies. It then becomes sacred, and must be touched 
by none but a Brahman, — must be approached by none 
but a Hindu. A full morning and evening worship is 
celebrated before the image, that in the evening being 
followed by amusements. The concluding day witnesses 
the farewell of the deity, who is thanked for favouring 
the worshippers with his or her presence, and is suppli- 
cated to return next year. When the god is supposed 
to have departed, the sacred image becomes once more 
common clay, and may be touched by any one. About 
sunset it is taken to a river bank, or to a tank, with a 
musical procession, dancing women and lighted torches. 
The image is rowed out to the middle of the stream and 
dropped into the water, there to dissolve and decay. The 
amount of worship performed by Hindus is increased by 
the necessity of averting the evil which other gods besides 
their own special deity may cause, and by their desire 
to gain any possible additional benefit. We cannot give 
space to a recital of the important public festivals which 
occur throughout the months of the year. These vary in 
different localities, and the total number is enormous. 
For instance, there are festivals all over Bengal to Jagan- 
nath, in imitation of the great ones at Puri, cars and great 
images being similarly provided. There are numerous 
special festivals to Sasthi, who watches over women in 
child-bearing, and protects children. At the festivals 
of Krishna miracle-plays form an important 
' feature, and represent the most important 
events in the lives of the gods, the actors being got up 
to represent them, and not omitting their many in- 
decent words and actions. By such representations, 
among other things, the illiterate Hindu masses come to 



CAR OF JAG ANNA TH AT PURI, ORISSA. 93 




CAR OF JAGANNATH AT PURI, ORISSA, 



94 MODERN HINDUISM. 

have a more vivid idea of the history of their gods than 
any people. 

The festival of Durga in Bengal is especially elaborate, 

the sons of Durga, Sarasvati, the wife of Brahma, and 

Festivals of Lakshmi, the wife of Vishnu, being attendant 

Durga. figures. Durga herself has ten hands, holding 
weapons emblematic of her victories. The forms of 
worship previous to the coming to life of the goddess are 
very long, and one or more animals may be sacrificed, 
sometimes a buffalo. So generally is this festival ob- 
served, — husbands and sons returning home for it, and 
business being suspended, — that it has been termed the 
Christmas of Bengal. It is celebrated in the sixth month 
(parts of September and October). The festival of Lak- 
shmi, which follows, is the occasion for sitting up at night 
playing cards or amusing themselves, for the goddess is 
believed during the night to pass over all who are awake. 
In the seventh month there is a very repulsive celebration 
of Durga in her bloodthirsty aspect. " In the images 
which represent her at this festival/' says Mr. "Wilkins, 
" she is black, as her name Kali implies, and her husband 
is lying down under her feet. Her tongue protrudes from 
her mouth, her four arms are extended, one hand grasp- 
ing a sword, another the head of a giant, and the other 
two signalling to her hosts. As ear-rings she has two 
dead bodies of her foes ; her neck is adorned with a neck- 
lace of skulls, and her only garment, a zone, is made of 
the hands of her vanquished foes, whilst her hair falls 
down in long tresses to her waist. Intoxicated with the 
blood of her foes, her eyes flash with rage, her eyebrows 
are dyed with crimson, and blood flows down her breast." 
This worship is attended with midnight sacrifices of 
animals, shrieking invocations, and drunken orgies. Many 
of the festivals assume the aspect of carnivals. At some 
of the festivals of Siva hooks used to be inserted in the 
backs of men, which were then swung in the air at a great 
height ; but this is now discontinued, either a dummy being 
used, or the hook fixed to a rope round the man's body. 

The next great department of Hindu worship is that 
concerned with pilgrimages to particular places of great 



PILGRIMAGES TO HOLY PLACES. 95 

sanctity or to special temples. Large numbers of Hindus 
have given themselves up to nothing but travel- Pilgrimages 
ling from one sacred place to another; but a t0 hol y P lac8S - 
great proportion of the people strain every nerve to visit 
a shrine at least once in their lifetime, and will exercise 
self-denial for many years to pay the expenses of their 
journey and provide offerings for the gods, believing that 
their pilgrimage will secure them great blessings both in 
this world and the next. They cheerfully endure the 
greatest privations or sufferings on the waj T , and show 
the most intense joy when they come in sight of their 
destination, or see the sacred image exhibited. " I have 
seen the people throw themselves on the ground,*' says 
Mr. "Wilkins, " and kiss the very dust as soon as they 
have caught sight of the holy city of Benares ; I have 
seen them take the dust from the wheels of Jagannath's 
car, and place it on their head with signs of the intensest 
pleasure ; I have heard them shout with joy as they have 
come in sight of the meeting of the waters of the Ganges 
with the sea at Saugor Island.'* Many now travel by 
rail to the famous shrines, and thus the crowds that visit 
them are greater than ever ; but many still go by road 
or boat, often being drowned, or dying by the wayside. 
Some take vows to perform long distances by measuring 
their length upon the ground. The sacrifice of life is 
increased by the demands of the priests, which too often 
do not leave the pilgrims enough money to provide for 
the return journey. It cannot be said that the amount 
or character of the w T orship paid is an adequate justifica- 
tion for the weary toil and expense of the journey. 
Bathing, presenting offerings, walking round the temples 
and seeing the place are the chief religious acts, and too 
often the rest of the time is occupied with immoral or 
degrading practices which the priests facilitate. The 
reputation of many shrines is kept up by the preaching 
or talking of travelling adherents, always engaged for 
the purpose of vaunting the benefits obtained by a pil- 
grimage. Visits are also paid in the hope of obtaining 
the much-valued blessing of a son, or in fulfilment of a 
vow in time of distress or sickness. 



96 MODERN HINDUISM. 

We can only notice in any detail the two greatest 
places of pilgrimage in India, Benares and Puri : the 
former being the special abode of Siva, the 
latter of Vishnu. In no Indian city has gross 
idolatry a stronger hold than in Benares; ugly idols, 
monstrosities, and reproductive emblems are met with on 
all sides. More temples have been built and more money 
has been spent on worship under British rule than during 
an equal period of Mussulman domination ; but this is 
accounted for by the greater wealth and freedom of the 
people. Some years ago more than a thousand temples 
were counted in Benares proper, exclusive of suburbs, and 
of images in house walls. These are devoted to a great 
variety of deities, sometimes Siva under different names, 
or relatives of other deities connected with Siva ; and not 
content with an image of the god worshipped in a par- 
ticular temp]e, in many cases the priests have added 
images of others in niches or in rows ; sometimes even a 
hundred are to be seen in rows. The exceeding sanctity 
of Benares is accounted for by a legend which we have 
already given (p. 78), and this holy character extends to 
ten miles from the Ganges, the tract being bounded by 
a winding road fifty miles long, containing hundreds of 
temples. To walk along this road is itself a most meri- 
torious act ; residents are taught that they should walk 
along it at least once a year ; and whosoever dies within 
this area, even a heretic or a criminal, gains heaven. 

The most important temple in the city is that of 
Bisheshwar (god of the world), a name given to Siva as 
Temple of king of all the gods in the Benares territory, 
Bishesiiwar. the gods of the sacred road being his police 
force. He is supposed to reside in a stone linga emblem, 
and before this crowds of people pass daily with offerings 
of rice, flowers, grain, ghee, and money. Many of the 
worshippers in approaching the god show signs of great 
fear, dreading to call down his anger. Another of the 
great places of attraction is the Mankarnika well, a foul 
tank of water which is believed to wash out the greatest 
crimes. 

Pilgrims taking the fifty miles journey round Benares 



THE GREAT TEMPLE. 97 

have to go through a severe ritual ; they must, if possible, 
bathe before starting, and at the end of each pilgrims' 
day, and must walk barefoot, must provide for observances, 
their own wants without receiving from or giving to 
others, must not quarrel or use bad language on the road, 
and must give gifts to the priests of the Manharnika well 
at the end of the journey. 

In a somewhat different way from Benares, Puri (the 
city) on the coast of Orissa is as famous and holy in the 
eyes of Hindus. Here Vishnu is worshipped 
as Jagannath (the Lord of the World) ; and a 
series of notable festivals throughout the year keep up 
a continual round of religious excitement, culminating 
in the famous Car Festival, attended by something like 
100,000 pilgrims. There seems little doubt that Puri was 
a Buddhist sanctuary, to the reputation of which Jagan- 
nath has succeeded. The present temple dates from the 
end of the twelfth century, and is a pyramidal building 
on a site about twenty feet above the surround- The great 
ing country. Vishnu worship was greatly temple, 
modified by Chaitanya, who taught that faith and love 
were more acceptable to the deity than penance and rites. 
The temple already had a large double enclosure with 
lofty walls ; and Chaitanya taught that within it men 
of all castes were equal, and might eat together of the 
sacred food. Altogether the worship of Jagannath be- 
came that of a gentle, genial deity with human feelings 
and sympathies, and having no trace of those blood- 
thirsty qualities generally associated in this country with 
the "car of Juggernaut." No doubt the genial has become 
the jovial and the voluptuous with many of the worship- 
pers, and the worship itself is accused of licentiousness, 
but as warmly defended from the charge by some who 
have had good opportunities of knowing. 

The inner enclosure of the great temple, nearly four 
hundred by three hundred feet, includes a number of 
small temples and sacred places and trees as well as the 
large temple. The latter contains four principal halls, 
the Hall of Offerings, the Dancing Hall for amusements, 
the audience chamber, and the shrine proper, both the 

H 



ss 



MODERN HINDUISM. 




CONSECRATED FOOD. 99 

latter being eighty feet square. In niches in the shrine are 
three large images of three of Vishnu's incarnations — the 
Boar, the Man-lion and the Dwarf. The principal images 
(p. 89), are those of Jagannath, painted black ; of Bala- 
rama, his brother, white, and Subhadra, their 
sister, golden yellow. They are made of one e images - 
block of iron-wood, and are most uncouth representations 
of human bodies without hands or legs, the arms being 
stumps to which golden hands are fixed. The male 
images are about six feet high, the female four and a 
half feet. The clothing and ornaments of these images 
are changed several times a clay, so that they appear 
very different at different hours, sometimes being dressed 
as Buddha, sometimes as Krishna, sometimes as Granesa. 
Various stories are told to account for these ugly images, 
one being that God is so great that no figure can properly 
represent Him, consequently these ugly ones are made to 
inspire people with fear, that they may propitiate Him 
by gifts. Most probably they are modified forms of 
Buddhist images ; there is an additional shapeless stump 
about six feet high, which is said to have the mark of 
a wheel on the top, representing the Buddhist wheel of 
the law. A certain relic is imbedded in the image of 
Jagannath, and is carefully transferred when new images 
are made ; what it is, none but the priests know, and 
it is probably a Buddhist relic. 

Numerous other gods or forms of the principal gods 
have images in or near the shrine. The chief images 
are only moved at the great festivals : but consecrated 
daily services of a complete character, as if f o° d - 
they were human beings, are performed. At the four 
chief meals of the day large quantities of cooked food 
are brought into the temple and consecrated by being 
set in front of the idol. It is cooked by men of low caste, 
and eagerly eaten by pilgrims of all castes after conse- 
cration, or even taken home as a sacred treasure. On 
some days this food is supplied to 100,000 people, for 
payment, of course, so that the profits of the priests in 
charge are enormous. The great festivals at Puri are 
the Dol Jatra festival, a sort of spring carnival ; the 



ioo MODERN HINDUISM. 

Snan Jatra, when tlie images are bathed with sacred 
water and beautifully dressed, after which they are sup- 
posed to have taken a fever from exposure and are put 
in a sick chamber for a fortnight, during which time 
they are repainted ; and then follows the Rath Jatra, or 
The car Car Festival, when the gods are taken for a 
Festival. r j c j e on their cars. These chariots have often 
been described ; they are of immense weight and cum- 
brousness, that of Jagannath being forty-five feet high, 
and having sixteen wheels. Amid an enormous concourse 
the images are placed on the cars, and dressed, and have 
golden hands and arms attached to them. When this 
is complete, the chief guardian of the temple, the Kurda 
Raja, termed " the sweeper of the temple/' sweeps the 
road for one hundred yards in front of the cars, worships 
the images, and touches the ropes of the car as if he 
were dragging them ; then hundreds of Hindus specially 
set apart for the office, aided by the attendant pilgrims, 
drag the car slowly to a set of temples about two miles 
distant. This great effort, however, occupies four clays, 
and on arrival at the destination the image of Lakshmi 
is taken to see Jagannath. After four or five days the 
return journey takes place. It is at this festival that 
Reported immolations of pilgrims have been supposed 
immolation to take place as part of the routine, so that 
of victims. fyjQ car of Juggernaut has become with many 
almost synonymous with a system of ruthless crushing 
of human victims ; but this is really contrary to the spirit 
of the worship of Vishnu. No doubt self-immolation has 
not ^infrequently taken place, because the worshippers 
felt their sins were all atoned for, and they did not wish 
to return to the world to commit fresh sins ; and in the 
crowds many have no doubt been accidentally crushed 
to death ; but human sacrifice is not inculcated by the 
priests nor in any way encouraged by them, for a drop 
of blood spilt in the presence of Jagannath pollutes 
priests, people, and consecrated food. If a death takes 
place within the precincts of the temple, the worship 
is suddenly stopped, and the offerings are taken away 
from the sight of the offended deity. There is an almost 



VISHNU TEMPLE AT TRICHINOPOLY. ior 

continual round of festivals at Puri, which indeed lives 
on its religious character, having no other attraction. 

Other notable localities for pilgrimages are the great 
temples of Tanjore, Madura, and Eamesvara (an island 
between India and Ceylon), these being seats of Siva 
worship. It is a great pilgrims 7 feat to visit Benares and 
bring from thence a pot of Granges water to Ramesvara, 
to pour it on the symbol of Siva and then bathe in the 
sea, of course with payment of fees. Sir Monier- Williams 
relates a touching incident in connection with a touching 
this. " Shortly before my arrival at the temple incident. 
a father and son had just completed their self-imposed 
task, and after months of hard walking succeeded in 
transporting their precious burden of Granges water "to 
the other side of the channel. The longed-for goal was 
nearly reached and the temple of Ramesvara already in 
sight, when the father died suddenly on the road, leaving 
his son, a mere child, utterly destitute and unprotected. 
The boy, however, had one treasure left — his jar of 
Ganges water. This, if only it could be poured upon 
the sacred symbol, would prove a complete panacea for 
all his earthly troubles. Eagerly he grasped his bur- 
den once more and hurried on to the shrine. Imagine 
the child's outburst of passionate grief when the door 
was closed against him. He had no fee for the presiding 
priest." 

The most remarkable Vishnu temple in southern India 
is that of Sri-rangam, at Trichinopoly. It has a vast 
series of seven, enclosures one within another, visimu 
in which hundreds of Brahmans live. The temple at 
corners of the four gateways of each square Tnclnn0 P 0l y- 
have splendid pyramidal towers. The whole is supposed 
to represent Vishnu's heaven. The principal image is 
lying down, and believed to be immovable — of course 
with a legend to account for the position, and there is a 
shrine over it in the shape of the syllable Om, A second 
image of Vishnu is kept for carrying in processions at 
the Car Festival, etc. The crown of the idol is covered 
with diamonds, pearls, and rubies, and the other orna- 
ments are equally rich, Temples like this maintain large 



102 MODERN HINDUISM. 

bands of musicians and troops of dancing girls, to take 
part in the festivals. 

We must now give some brief account of the sects 

into which the Hindus are divided. To some extent these 

Vishnuite follow lines already indicated, as worshipping 

sects. Vishnu or other gods under different manifesta- 
tions, or following the teaching of particular reformers. 
Thus, to begin with the Vishnuite sects, there are the 
Eamanujas, or followers of Ramanuja, the Eamanandis, 
the Kabir Panthis, and numerous other sects founded by 
individuals. All these have special marks which must 
be painted on their foreheads, after bathing at the great 
festivals, with a special white earth. The Eamanujas, 
for instance, are distinguished by two perpendicular lines 
passing from the roots of the hair to the eyebrows, and a 
transverse line across the top of the nose connecting the 
other two. In the centre is a transverse streak of red. 
They are also marked with patches of red and white on 
the breast and arms / supposed to represent certain signs 
of Vishnu. Their chief special belief is that Vishnu 
is Brahman, the supreme Being. The Eamananclis speci- 
ally worship Vishnu as Ramachandra, with Sita his wife. 
This sect has many monasteries, and many travelling 
members, who collect offerings and visit shrines, all these 
being celibates. They practically disregard caste. The 
Kabir Panthis, following Kabir, believe in one god, and 
need not join in the outward worship of the Hindu 
deities ; but they sing hymns to Kabir, their founder. 
Their moral code is excellent, including truth, humanity, 
and hatred of violence. 

There are very many worshippers of Vishnu under the 
form of the infant Gropal, child of the cowherd. This 
sect, founded by Vishnu Swami and extended by Val- 
labha, is notable for its belief in costly apparel and liberal 
feeding as meritorious, in opposition to asceticism. The 
chief temple of Gropal is in Ajmir. 

The Madvas of Southern India are followers of Mad- 
hava, said to have been an incarnation of the god Vayu 
in the 12th century. They wear a single cloth of a dirty 
yellow colour, go bareheaded, and have the symbols of 



THE MA HA SATI AT AHAR. 



103 




io4 MODERN HINDUISM. 

Vishnu stamped with a red-hot iron on their shoulders 
or breast. They worship a plurality of gods, but teach 
that the human spirit is distinct from the Divine Spirit, 
though united to it, and that absorption in the godhead 
is impossible, thus differing markedly from the ordinary 
Hindu belief. 

The majority of the Vishnu worshippers of Bengal 
belong to the sect founded by Chaitanya, whose influence 
raised the festivals of Puri to such popularity. His fol- 
lowers believe that Vishnu is the supreme soul and the 
one substance in the universe, and that Chaitanya was 
an incarnation of him. They also lay great stress upon 
bakti, or faith, of which there are five degrees : (1) peace, 
calm contemplation ; (2) servitude ; (3) friendship ; (4) 
filial affection ; (B) sweetness. Their cult is a joyous 
one, qualified by the necessity of implicit obedience to 
the guru. Caste is laid aside at their feasts. 

The distinguishing marks of the Sivaitic sects are 
horizontal lines instead of perpendicular ; and differences 

sivaitic of width and colour indicate the particular 
sects. sec t # The Sivaites are very largely Brah- 
mans, and the sects are not so extensive and popular as 
those of the Vishnuites. Among them are the Dandis, 
or staff bearers, mendicants who spend most of their time 
in meditation. Often they become almost idiotic from 
their perpetual suppression of thought and speech. The 
Yogis are another sect of meditationists with very special 
regulations, which are believed to give them the power 
of levitation, of travelling immense distances instantly, 
of rendering themselves invisible, etc. Many of them 
are practically jugglers and fortune-tellers, travelling 
about and practising on popular credulity. 

The Saktas include those sects specially devoted to the 
worship of female forms of the deity, such as Sarasvati, 
Lakshmi, Sita, Parvati, Durga, Kali, etc. The 
Saktas look upon their female deity as the 
active energy of all things, and the source of all beings, 
for without the female element they could not be born. 
It is chiefly in modern books termed Tantras that these 
views are taught. They have been called the Bible of 



THE SIKHS. 105 

the Saktas, and are akin to the Puranas in parts, but in 
others deal largely with the peculiar rites of the Saktas, 
and charms and spells, mostly being in the form of dia- 
logues between Siva and his wife. No doubt in this 
cultus the lowest grade of Hinduism was reached. It 
upholds and propagates the most unbridled ideas of sen- 
suality, in the belief that to indulge the grossest appetites 
with the mind fixed on .he supreme Being was the most 
pious act possible. The drinking of alcoholic liquors 
forms a great element in Sakti w r orship, as well as the 
eating of meat. The powers supposed to be acquired by 
meditating on the texts and spells of the Tantras outdo 
anything imaginable. By them it is possible to predict 
the future, work more wonders than the gods, inspire 
any one with love, turn plants into meal, etc. Credulity 
cannot go farther than in the case of the believers in 
Saktism. It is believed, however, that the spread of 
education by the English has done much to diminish the 
sway of these baleful notions. 

Here we may call attention to an opposite phenomenon 
in modern Hinduism — the spread of theistic sects of an 
increasingly pure tendency. The Sikhs of the 
Punjaub owe their rise to Nanak, a follower 
of Kabir in the 15th century, born not far from Lahore 
in 1469. He became a guru or teacher, and his followers 
were termed Sikhs or disciples. He taught a religion 
free from caste and idolatry, having been largely in- 
fluenced by the growing Mohammedanism around him ; 
but he still 'remained more of a pantheist than a mono- 
theist, and he taught that God should be especially 
worshipped under the name of Hari, one of the titles of 
Vishnu. After his death there succeeded him a line of 
chief gurus, who, at first friendly, developed great hos- 
tility to the Mohammedans, and became largely military 
leaders. Their political history must be read elsewhere. 
The fourth guru. Ram-das, set up a lake temple in the 
sacred tank at Umritsur, which became the head-quarters 
of the Sikhs. The fifth guru, Arjun, compiled the first 
Sikh bible largely from the precepts of his predecessors. 
Govincl, the tenth guru, compiled a second book or sup- 



106 MODERN HINDUISM. 

plement, devised a form of baptism, imposed a vow not 
to worship idols, to bow to no one but a Sikh Guru, and 
in many ways cemented the bonds of the party. War 
was made a religious duty ; and while Govind refused to 
name a successor as guru, he created the Sikh bible (or 
The Sikh Granth), a permanent object of worship with 
bible. the title Sahib. Henceforth it was to be their 
infallible guide ; whatever they asked it would show 
them. The Sikh bible is written in the old Hindi dialect, 
with a peculiar mode of writing. It declares the unity 
of God, but is based on pantheistic ideas. Many of the 
names of Vishnu are accepted as names of the supreme 
Deity. It forbids image worship, but the way in which 
the Granth itself is worshipped, dressed, and decorated, 
goes far to elevate it into an idol. Many ordinary Hindu 
superstitions are included in it, such as the belief in the 
sanctity of the cow, the vast number of transmigrations 
of souls, and complete submission to the guru. In recent 
years the Sikh faith has very considerably retrograded 
towards Vishnuism. Many Sikhs now adopt caste, wear 
the Brahmanical thread, and observe Hindu festivals and 
ceremonies. There is a notable temple to Govind at 
Patna containing many remains of him. The temple at 
Umritsur is one of the most striking sights in India ; it 
is dedicated to the one god under his name Hari ; but he 
is believed to be visibly represented by the Sacred Book. 
A very significant development of modern Hinduism is 
that represented by the Brahmo Somaj, which represents 

The Brahmo a revival of the theism to be found in the 

somaj. Yedas, influenced not a little by the teaching 

of Christianity. Eammohun Roy (born 1774), founder 

of the Brahmo Somaj, was a high-caste Brahman, son of 

a Vishnu worshipper, and highly educated in Persian, 

Rammohun Arabic, and Sanskrit. At the age of sixteen 
R °y- he wrote a tract against idolatry, and excited 
such opposition that he left home for some years, studying 
Buddhism in Tibet. He afterwards studied English, 
obtained government employment, and mixed with Euro- 
peans. After his father's death he was more free in his 
opposition to what he considered perversions of the true 



DEVENDRA XATH TAGORE. 107 

Yeclic religion ; and lie particularly drew attention to the 
fact that suttee, the self-immolation of widows, was not 
sanctioned by the Yedas. In 1819, after studying Chris- 
tianity, he published a book, " The Precepts of Jesus, the 
Guide to Peace and Happiness/' in which he stated that 
he found the doctrines of Christ more conducive to moral 
principles, and better adapted for the use of rational 
beings, than any other that had come to his knowledge. 
Nevertheless he strongly objected to accept the Christian 
doctrine of the Trinity, for he considered it to be of the 
same nature as that of a plurality of gods. Thus he is 
properly described as a Unitarian. He preferred to choose 
the best from all religions, believing that inspiration was 
not confined to any age or nation ; thus he accepted 
whatever was good in the sacred books of all nations. 

The Brahmo Somaj was finally established in 1830, 
'"for the worship of the eternal, unsearchable, and im- 
mutable Being, who is the Author and Preserver of the 
universe.'" Xo image or portrait was to be admitted, 
no sacrifice was to be made, and nothing worshipped by 
other men was to be spoken of with contempt in the 
building. Although he has spoken and written against 
the caste system. Rammohnn Roy did not give it up. 
nor abandon the Brahmanical thread. The Yeclas were 
still read at his meetings, while the Bible was not intro- 
duced. In 1S31 he visited England with several objects, 
but fell a victim to the climate, and died in 1833 at 
Bristol. To him must be given the credit of the first 
striking new departure in the elevation and purification 
of modern Hinduism. 

His practical successor was Devendra Xath Tagore, 
born in ISIS, who in 1839 formed a society for the know- 
ledge of truth, and in 1841 joined the Brahmo D ev endra 
Somaj. He prepared a scheme for organising Nath 
that society as a church in 18^3, including Ta 2° re ' 
seven solemn vows to be taken by members. The mem- 
bers were to abstain from idolatry, to worship the great 
God, Creator. Preserver, and Destroyer, through the love 
of God and doing works dear to God. — to lead holy lives 
and to seek forgiveness through abandonment of sin. A 



. 108 MODERN HINDUISM. 

minister was appointed, and by 1847, 767 persons had 
taken the vows, while many others adhered to them. 
About 1850 it was decided that the Vedas w r ere not in- 
fallible, and that only such views as were in harmony 
with Theistic truth were to be accepted from them. Ap- 
proved extracts were made from the Vedas, Manu, the 
Satapatha Brahmana, etc. The views of the church 
include the Fatherhood of Grod, who has never become 
incarnate, but whose providence is over his creatures, 
and who hears their prayers. Repentance is the one 
path of atonement, forgiveness, and salvation. The only 
necessary religious deeds are good works, charity, con- 
templation and devotion, and the attainment of know- 
ledge, all penances and pilgrimages being useless. The 
only sacrifice is self-sacrifice, the only temple is the pure 
heart. Caste is not acknowledged. 

With all these advanced views, much tacit recognition 
of Hinduism, and even conformity with it was still main- 
Keskub tained ; and in 1865 a new reformer proclaimed 
Chunder his mission, the well-known Keshub Chunder 
Sen ' Sen, imbued with more advanced views as 
well as a more emotional and spiritual nature. He 
wished to abolish all caste observances, and this led to a 
rupture. A new form of initiation, the admission of 
women, and the reform of marriage observances followed ; 
but after vigorous work for a number of years, Keshub 
agreed to the marriage of his daughter while a child to 
the Maharajah of Kuch Behar, at which some Hindu 
ceremonies were observed, and this caused much scandal. 
Nevertheless his church, the Progressive Brahmo Somaj 
of India, showed much vitality under his almost autocratic 
rule up to his death on January 8th, 1884. The original 
society, now known as the Adi Somaj, continues under 
the guidance of Devendra Nath Tagore, but has some- 
what gone back towards Hinduism. Keshub had the 
skill to introduce new festivals to replace the older Hindu 
celebrations, including religious meetings with public 
processions, music, and singing. He also professed him- 
self inspired to put down sectarianism and discord be- 
tween sects. His influence still lives ; the apostolic 



TEMPLE OE KALI, RAJGRIBA, INDIA. 109 



ill '11 



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J|p. [I -J M|h^ - - 





no MODERN HINDUISM. 

Durbar of his church refused to allow the platform from 
which he taught to be used, and declared that Keshub 
was still the leader of the church. It would be curious 
to note if this is followed by any further step towards 
his deification. 

The party who left Keshub after the marriage of his 

daughter have formed a stronger church than the one 

Tlie they left, under the title of the Universal 

Universal Somaj. They have adopted a sort of presby- 

somaj. terian government, to prevent the autocratic 
rule of one man, and only those who have given up 
idolatry and caste in private as well as in public can be 
office-bearers. Altogether there are about 1,500 strict 
members and 8,000 adherents of these various Theistic 
bodies in India, distributed over 178 churches. 

"We have said little hitherto of certain common notions 
of the Hindus, which however influence them very greatly 

F t n m an( ^ ki- n d er improvement. For instance, fatal- 
ism is one of their strongest beliefs. All a 
man's life is controlled by the Deity, and it is fruitless 
for man to oppose the decrees of God. It is this resigna- 
tion to fate which so largely paralyses the efforts of the 
people, especially in regard to sickness. The belief in 

Maya, or Maya, or illusion, is another of their beliefs. 

illusion, xt is said that all mankind are the victims of 
illusion, especially in imagining themselves to be some- 
thing different from God. It is commonly said that the 
supreme Being was tired of being alone, and formed the 
world as a sport or amusement, and that all the miseries 
of life came from Maya, the creatures being ignorant 
that they are really one with God. 

Again, belief in the transmigration of souls pervades 
all India. It will be found to constitute a prominent 
feature in Buddhism. We may here briefly state the 
Transmigra- essential details of the creed. Existence after 
tion - death is a matter of course. A predominantly 
good life is rewarded with heaven, an evil life with hell. 

Rewards After a longer or shorter time the soul returns 

and to earth to be re-born in a higher or lower 

Punisbments - station, according to its good or evil deeds. 



REWARDS AND PUNISHMENTS. in 

Re-births may be indefinitely numerous, and may be 
alternately higher and lower, or higher only if the conduct 
has been sufficiently good. Many of the gods are believed 
to have a heaven of their own, into which they take 
their worshippers for a longer or shorter time, and admit 
them to various degrees of nearness to themselves. Many 
are the acts which confer these privileges, but especially 
pilgrimages, acts of worship, sacrifices, building temples, 
giving gifts to Brahmans, and honouring gurus. The 
higher states of blessedness are exclusively for Brahmans ; 
but those of lower caste may by good works earn re-birth 
in higher castes till they at last become Brahmans. 

The various hells and heavens are elaborately described 
in the Puranas. There are said to be a hundred thousand 
hells, one for each class of offence. For instance, a 
glutton is to be cast into boiling oil ; he who injures a 
man of superior caste is punished by being torn by swine; 
one who contemptuously treats a religious mendicant is 
made to stick fast in the mud with his head downwards. 
But fortunately for both sinners and priests, these punish- 
ments may be remitted if appropriate atonements, good 
deeds, and offerings are made. For corporeal sins, says 
Manu, a man will be re-born as a plant or a mineral ; for 
verbal sins, as a bird or a beast ; for mental sins, in the 
lowest human state. The slayer of a Brahman will be 
re-born as a dog, boar, ass, bull, etc. ; he who steals gold 
from a priest will be born a thousand times in the bodies 
of spiders, snakes, etc. But the earlier books are far 
surpassed by the later ones in their teaching on this 
point. Thus,' in the Agni Purana it is taught that "a 
person who loses human birth passes through 8,000,000 
births amongst inferior creatures before he can appear 
again on earth as a human being. Of these he remains 
2,100,000 among the immovable parts of creation, as 
stones, trees, etc. ; 900,000 amongst the watery tribes ; 
1,000,000 amongst insects, worms, etc. ; 1,000,000 amongst 
birds, and 3,000,000 amongst the beasts. In the ascend- 
ing scale, if his works be suitable, he lives 400,000 lives 
amongst the lower castes of men, and 100 amongst Brah- 
mans. After this he may obtain absorption into Brahma. " 



ii2 MODERN HINDUISM. 

To such an extent can the policy of frightening people 
into goodness, or rather into compliance with priestly 
demands, be developed. Happily the Hindus, as a 
rule, do not remember the sufferings of their imaginary 
previous lives or conditions ; and it is a ready way of 
accounting for any misfortune to say that it is a punish- 
ment for sins committed in a former life. 

"With such views it is not surprising that death and 
its approach should be made the occasion for endeavouring 

Death *'° °^^ a ^ n future benefits, or relief from penal- 
ties. The Hindu is taught that after death 
his spirit will wander in wretchedness, unless he dies near 
the Ganges or some holy stream, or unless his body is 
burned on its banks, or at any rate near some water, and. 
some portion of his ashes must be thrown into it. This 
leads to a custom of exposing the dying on the banks of 
rivers. Long rows of steps line the banks and. rude 
buildings, used for the dying to lie in, called, ghats. The 
benefits of so dying are represented as so great, that 
relatives often believe it to be the greatest kindness to 
expose them, often carrying them through terrible heat, 
and exposing them at imminent risk. Great numbers 
of lives have been sacrificed in this way when the disease 
was by no means mortal ; the word of the native doctors 
is taken as sufficient, and great haste is made lest the 
patient should die at home. The whole scene is repulsive 
and injurious in the highest degree. A few minutes 
before death is expected the victim is brought down to 
the brink of the river, where he dies more or less im- 
mersed in the stream. No doubt in some cases advantage 
is taken of these circumstances to administer poison. A 
native writer says : " Persons entrusted with the care 
and nursing of a dying man at the burning ghat soon 
get tired of their charge (no women being allowed to be 
there) ; and rather than minister to his comforts, are 
known to resort to artificial means. The process of im- 
mersion is another name for suffocation. 77 So tenacious 
are some people of fife, that they will sometimes survive 
nine or ten immersions, and be brought home again ; but 
their continued life is considered disgraceful. 



CEREMONIES FOR THE DE^yATL 115 

The burning of the corpse follows quickly J* e higher 
(: The corpse is removed from its resting-place "o how- 
burning ghat, a distance of a few hundred „ 
yards, and preparations for a funeral pile are 
speedily made. The body is then covered with a piece 
of new cloth and laid upon the pyre, the upper and lower 
parts of which are composed of firewood, faggots, and 
a little sandalwood and glue to neutralise the smell. The 
Manipora Brahman, an outcaste, reads the formula, and 
the son, or nearest of kin, changing his old garments for 
new white clothes, at one end of which is fastened an 
iron key to keep off evil spirits, sets fire to the pile. The 
body is consumed to ashes, the portion remaining unburnt 
is thrown into the river. The son, after pouring a few 
jars of holy water on the pile, bathes in the stream and 
returns home with his friends.' 7 Then follow wild ex- 
pressions of grief on the part of the women. Often the 
family cannot afford to buy enough wood to consume the 
corpse, and part is left for jackals and vultures. The 
Brahmans of course go through much more elaborate 
funeral ceremonies than are here indicated. 

After the cremation come the Shraclda, or ceremonies 
for the benefit of the dead ; these may be comparatively 
inexpensive, or may be made the occasion of ceremonies 
lavish expenditure. On the thirtieth day after for the 
death, offerings of food, sweetmeats, etc., are dead - 
made to the spirit of the deceased and his or her ancestors, 
and at the same time a number of Brahmans and persons 
of other castes are entertained. These ceremonies are 
evidently much akin to the ancestor-worship of the 
Chinese, as already detailed, showing how powerful a 
factor this reverence for ancestral, spirits has been in 
races very dissimilar. One of the prayers is iL May those 
in 1113^ family who have been burnt with fire, or who 
are alive who are yet unburnt, be satisfied with the food 
presented on the ground, and proceed contented towards 
the supreme path ! May those who have no father nor 
mother, nor kinsman, nor food, nor supply of nourishment, 
be contented with this food offered on the ground, and. 
attain, like it, a kappy abode !" Some of the food is cast 



ii2 M<~ 

MODERN HINDUISM. 
To sucli an ey + 

into goocli^ ire 5 by which means it is supposed to reach those 
demand? AOm ^ i s intended. Brahmans repeat these cere- 
rule, 3n i es frequently in the first year after death, and after 
tv wards annually. The title to property is most intimately 
bound up with the funeral rites. Only a son or near 
male relative is properly qualified to perform them ; but 
if males fail, females or other heirs may undertake the 
duty. Large promises are made in the Puranas and 
other sacred books to those who properly perform the 
Shradda rites, including the forgiveness of all their own 
sins. The details, like those of all religious matters in 
so religious a people, are far too lengthy to be given. 

What about the influence of Hindu religious ideas upon 
their moral condition ? Many writers agree that this is 
Moral state bound U P with the position of women, and that 
' until they are freed and elevated no permanent 
improvement can be made. Here is an extract from a 
Hindu lady's book on the duties of wives. " The husband 
is the wife's religion, the wife's sole business, the wife's 
Condition of all-in-all. The wife should meditate on her 
wives. husband as Brahma. For her, all pilgrimages 
should be concentrated on her husband's foot. The com- 
mand of a husband is as obligatory as a precept of the 
Vedas. To a chaste wife her husband is her god. "When 
the husband is pleased, Brahma is pleased. The husband 
is the wife's guru, her honour, the giver of her happiness, 
the bestower of fortune, righteousness, and heaven, her 
deliverer from sorrow and from sin." 

Of course the seclusion of women is not generally pos- 
sible among the lower classes, but it is often aimed at 
Position of by them ; and the full consequences of the 
women, belief that the birth of a girl is a misfortune 
follow most Indian women through life. On the contrary, 
Hindu women pray, make pilgrimages, fast, and make 
costly offerings, that they may have sons who can by 
performing the Shradda rites deliver their ancestors from 
sufferings after death. All a girl's worship is directed 
towards obtaining good husbands and sons, by a series 
of rites which we cannot particularise ; nor can we 
enlarge upon the evils of girl marriages (at the age of 



SHRINE OF THE GODDESS PARVATL 



from seven to ten), and of plural marriages in the higher 
castes, or the details of wedding ceremonies, which how- 
ever are full of religious significance. 

The wives of the poorer people have considerable free- 
dom ; but among the richer classes a wife is the servant 




SHRINE OF THE GODDESS PARVATI, WIFE OF SIVA (EARLIER FORM OF KALI, 
DURGA, ETC.), IN A TEMPLE AT POONAH. 

not only of her husband but of all the older women of 
his family. She must always be visited in the presence 
of her brothers-in-law, and must not speak to her husband 
in the daytime, nor even take her meals with him. Too 



n6 MODERN HINDUISM. 

frequently she is the subject of painful tyranny and 
abuse on the part of the older women of the zenana. 
Yet the life of a Hindu wife is heaven compared with 
that of a childless widow. The faithful wife 
was long expected to sacrifice herself on his 
funeral pile (suttee), and, according as she did it or not, 
was lauded or cursed. Many widows in the past, from 
lack of courage to perform what they vowed, had them- 
selves drugged and forcibly immolated. Frequently 
widows would most calmly and impassionately devote 
themselves to the fire, never giving a cry or 
a sigh of pain. So powerfully can the belief 
that they are doing what is pleasing to the gods and their 
deceased husbands work upon the Hindu women. In 
1830 suttee was prohibited in States under British rule ; 
but it was still practised in some of the native States. 
Mr. Wilkins states that the last case he- heard of was 
about 1880. 

The extreme difficulty experienced in abolishing suttee 
is explained by the treatment to which surviving widows 
are subjected, especially childless widows, who are for- 
bidden to marry again, and become the household drudges 
and objects of scorn of the zenana. One meal a day, with 
a fast for two days a month, is their hard lot ; with the 
deprivation of ornaments and of every pleasure. In many 
cases the sufferings of a widow are such that she would 
gladly die. No doubt the older widows are able to assert 
themselves, and in time gain influence. But enough has 
been said to show that the key to much of the religious 
and social question in India is bound up with the con- 
dition and education of women. Some improvement has 
already come with the improved education of the better 
classes, and the partial opening of the zenanas to European 
ladies and to lady doctors ; and herein lies great hope for 
the future. 

The Hindu system is such that merit and pardon can 

Disconnection ^ e obtained for gross offences without any re- 

of morals and form of heart and life. Thus it is not surpris- 

reiigion. ^g ^^ ^hefb, dishonesty, lying, ingratitude, 

forgery, perjury, revenge, cruelty, and personal immorality 



HINDU VIRTUES. 117 

are very rife among them. Mr. Wilkins says : " It does not 
surprise me at all to find the Hindus morally what they 
are, as I remember that whilst their books contain some 
of the highest and noblest moral precepts, their deities, 
when incarnate, are described as ignoring these beautiful 
moral lessons ; and still further, when I see that religion 
and morality are quite separate in their view. . . . 
When a Hindu's anger is excited, truth, honour, trust — 
all are forgotten, and no means are left unemployed that 
can injure an enemy. The term ' mild Hindu/ certainly 
is the purest sarcasm ; they submit to oppression and 
cruelty because they are physically incapable of resist- 
ance. Only give them the opportunity to avenge them- 
selves and to oppose others, and certainly they are as 
vindictive in their way as any race of men on earth. 
They do not use the knife or the dagger, it is true, but 
they resort to poison, and, what is sometimes even worse, 
the poison of their own untruthful tongues. " On the 
other hand, we must credit the Hindus with Hindu 
much fraternal affection and filial regard, much Virtues, 
charity in the form of gifts, great patience, industry, and 
ingenuity. Out of these elements and their great intel- 
lectual powers we may hope that there may yet arise a 
nation mighty in goodness and noble in character. 

[In addition to works referred to in the previous chapter, the following 
are valuable : Bose's "The Hindus as They Are " ; H. H. Wilson's " Hindu 
Sects " ; " Medical Jurisprudence," by Dr. Norman Chevers ; Dr. Lall Mittra 
on " Orissa" ; Eev. T. E. Slater's " Life of Keshub Chundra Sen"; many 
articles in The Calcutta Review.~] 



CHAPTER V. 
life of 33uoM)a. 

Tlie soil prepared— The founder's period— Real existence of Buddha— Bud- 
dhist sacred hooks— The native land of Buddha— His youth and early- 
life— The great renunciation— His long retirement— His enlightenment 
—His temptation— Opening of his mission— The eightfold path— The 
origin of suffering— The freedom of Buddhism— Early converts— General 
features of Buddha's life— Alternation of itinerancy with rest— The Bud- 
dhist gardens— Buddha and the courtesan Ambapali— Anxious inquirers 
— The ne\r order of monks— Buddha not a socialist— Buddha's principal 
adherents— Lay believers— Women and Buddhism— Reception of sisters 
or nuns— Opposition— Brahmans confuted— The best sacrifice— Method 
of teaching— Long-drawn dissertations— A noble youth's conversion— 
Socratic method— Parables— The book of the Great Decease— Buddha 
prepares for his final discourse— His last temptation— His death. 

THAT Buddhism arose in a country and among people 
saturated with Brahmanism, 1 as we have described 
it, must never be forgotten in contemplating its rise and 
The soil development. Without pre-existing Brahman- 
prepared. i sm it would have lacked its most essential 
elements, its raison d'etre. The higher Brahman phi- 
losophy had already merged the multitude of early Vedic 
gods into the Universal Spirit, and had developed very 
considerably their Pantheistic system ; but at the same 
time the fetters of Brahman control, the observance of 
expensive and frequent rites, the obligation to obey the 
Vedic teaching and the authorised comments upon it 
were made more and more strict and onerous ; and a 
spirit of reaction naturally arose. That the reform 
associated with the great Buddha's name was only one 

Oldenberg's" Buddha "(0). Sacred 



1 [Khys Davids' " Hibbert Lectures.' 
Books of the East (S.E.)O 



118 



REAL EXISTENCE OF BUDDHA. 119 

evidence of this spirit, may be seen by the account we 
have already given of other rationalist philosophies (p. 
26, etc). Bat while these gave a more or less nominal 
assent to the Vedas, Buddhism declared the good man's 
independence of Brahmans and Vedas, and his power 
of working out his own salvation. It put forward at 
once a higher ideal of a religious life and claimed a release 
from the bonds of Pharisaism. 

"When we come to examine into the life of the supposed 
founder of Buddhism, we find great uncertainty even as 
to the period at which he lived. Many good The founder's 
authorities formerly placed him in the sixth period, 
and seventh centuries B.C. ; but the latest and apparently 
the most reasonable view assigns him to the fifth century 
b.c. and places his death about 420-400 b.c. 

How far Brahmanism was directly connected with the 
origin of Buddhism can probably never be known ; but 
the deity "Brahman" of the earlier religion is adopted, 
amplified, and subdivided in early Buddhism ; and no 
doubt the encouragement of the hermit and ascetic lives 
had led to the formation of communities of hermits and 
ascetics who may be taken as the prototypes of Buddhist 
monastic orders. Probably there were several sects of new 
religionists, who did not stick closely to the Veda and 
professed to have found a more excellent way, of whom 
the Buddhists and Jains have alone remained. 

"We need not doubt that Buddhism had a founder, 
though less may be attributable to him than is commonly 
imagined. Those who have believed that the Real 
story of Buddha was altogether a myth repre- existence of 
senting a sun : hero have had to construct more Buddna - 
imaginaiy tales than those they seek to destroy. The 
study of the Buddhist accounts, as preserved in Ceylon, 
written in the Pali, or sacred language of Buddhism (an 
early modification from Sanskrit), shows that from a very 
early time (supposed to be considerably before the Chris- 
tian era) their religion has been believed to have been 
founded by the Knowing or Enlightened One (Buddha), 
also designated the Exalted One (Bhagava). But it must 
be confessed that we have no genuine ancient biography 



i-o LIFE OF BUDDHA. 

of Buddha dating from tlie same age as the early Pali 
texts. Such information as they do contain is rather in 
an incidental and unconnected form ; but this does not 
cause us to doubt his having existed and been a religious 
leader, for at that early period and among that people 
the idea of composing a biography of a man had not 
arisen ; and all the ancient Hindu books are destitute of 
any specimen of an attempt at even a brief biography 
of a man. But the existence of numerous Buddhist sacred 

Buddhist books, the composition of which almost cer- 
sacred books, tainly took place before the council of the seven 
hundred fathers met at Vesali in the fourth century B.C., 
together with the nature of their contents, suffices to 
assure us that they represent the teaching of a great 
teacher, the Buddha, who preached salvation and deliver- 
ance to the people, and was in rivalry or opposition to 
six other heads of sects, of whom one, Nataputta, founded 
the Jain system, often represented as an offshoot of Bud- 
dhism, though it is rather a representative <of similar 
tendencies acting at the same time. " It is evident," 
says Prof. Olclenberg, "that Buddha was a head of a 
monastic order of the very same type as that to which 
Nataputta belonged ; that he journeyed from town to 
town in the garb and with all the external circumstances 
of an ascetic, taught and gathered round himself a band 
of disciples, to whom he gave simple ordinances. " The 
form in which details concerning him have been pre- 
served is chiefly his discourses and teaching, sometimes 
doubtfully associated with the name of the place where 
they were uttered ; and in addition to this the main 
events of his life are frequently referred to. 

The native land of Buddha was situated between the 

lower Himalayas of Nepal and the middle course of the 

Tlie native river Rapti, in the north-east of Oudh. The 

land of little river Rohim, which joins the Rapti near 

Buddna. Q oruc ] I p 0rej about 100 miles north of Benares, 
is its eastern boundary. Both the Rohim and the Rapti 
appear by the same names in early Buddhist literature. 
In this fertile region, liable to heavy rains and long-lying 
inundations, the Aryan tribe or people of the Sakyas 



THE GREAT RENUNCIATION. 



121 



(tlie Powerful), grew rice and maintained a close con- 
nection with the more powerful kingdom of Kosala (Ouclh) 
to the south-west, which ultimately absorbed them. Al- 
though it has been widely represented that the Buddha 
was a king's son, the oldest records only mention the 
father as Suddhoclana, a wealthy landowner, His youth and 
one of whose wives, Maya, of the same tribe, earl y life - 
died soon after the birth of her son, who was named 
Siclclhattha, and was 
often called Sakya, 
or Sakya-muni, the 
Sakya sage ; this 
event took place pro- 
bably somewhere 
about 500 b.c. He 
passed his youth in 
Kapila, the capital of 
the Sakyas, and there 
is no early tradition 
of his having become 
a Vedic student; 
rather the events of 
his after-life tend the 
other way, exhibiting 
him as a reformer and 
an opponent of Brah- 
manic pretensions. 
He appears to have 
been married, and to 
have had one son, 
Eahula, who became 
one of his disciples ; 
but there is no ab- 
solutely certain detail about the reasons and circumstances 
which led him at the age of twenty-nine to The Great 
abandon his home, and become a wandering Renunciation, 
ascetic, thenceforward known as. the ascetic Gautama 
(pronounced Gowtama). One of the earliest records repre- 
sents him as having felt deeply and often meditated on 
the weakness and decay of old age, and the horror of 




SEATED EIGUEE OF BUDDHA. 



122 LIFE OF BUDDHA. 

sickness and death, and having thus lost the buoyancy 
of youth and the enjoyment of life. Other early records 
tell that " the ascetic Gautama has gone from home into 
homelessness, while still young, young in years, in the 
bloom of youthful strength, in the first freshness of life. 
The ascetic Gautama, although his parents did not wish 
it, although they shed tears and wept, has had his hair 
and beard shaved, has put on yellow garments, and has 
gone from his home into homelessness/' 7 Elsewhere we 
read, u distressing is life at home, a state of impurity ; 
freedom is in leaving home ; while he reflected thus, he 
left his home," (0.) 

Thus seeking spiritual enlightenment, freedom, deliver- 
ance, Gautama travelled during a period of seven years, 

His long" re- placing himself in succession under two notable 
tirement. teachers. Leaving them without being satis- 
fied, he travelled through the kingdom of Magadha, and 
arrived at the town of Uruvela. • There, in a beautiful 
forest land, he spent many years in self-discipline, repres- 
sing and curbing his desires and aspirations, and waiting 
for supreme enlightenment, Fasting, suppression of the 
breath, and other forms of self-mortification were tried 
with the greatest persistence, but in vain. Five other 
ascetics, who had been his companions for a time, aban- 
doned him. Finally came the great crisis, when, sitting 

His eniight- under a tree (the Bo-tree, or Tree of Know- 
enment. ledge), he passed through successive stages of 
abstraction until he became enlightened about the trans- 
migrations of souls, and the Four Sacred Truths, (1) that 
suffering is universal in the world ; (2) that its cause is 
desire or attachment ; (3) that it can be ended by Nirvana ; 
(4) the way to attain Nirvana. " When I apprehended 
this," say the early records, " and when I beheld this, 
my soul was released from the evil of desire, released 
from the evil of earthly existence, released from the evil 
of error, released from the evil of ignorance. In the 
released awoke the knowledge of release ; extinct is re- 
birth, finished the sacred course, duty done, no more shall 
I return to this world ; this I knew." (0.) He had be- 
come the Buddha, the awakened, the enlightened. 



THE ORIGIN OF SUFFERING. 123 

For some time Buddha remained near the tree of 
knowledge, fasting and enjoying the happiness of de- 
liverance ; the oldest narrative states that this Histempta- 
period lasted four times seven days. After tion - 
this time, he is believed to have undergone severe temp- 
tation to enter at once into the desired condition of 
Nirvana instead of preaching his doctrine to the world. 
Meeting a Brahman, who questions his right to assume 
the title of Brahman, Buddha tells him that he is a true 
Brahman who has put away all evil from himself, who 
knows nothing of contempt or impurity, and has con- 
quered himself. Finally at the request of the Supreme 
Being Himself, Brahma Sahampati, Buddha resolved to 
proclaim to the world the truth he had attained. 

Buddha's formal mission, by general consent, opened at 
Benares. He is supposed to have started with preaching 
to the ascetics who had been his former com- opening- of 
panions, expounding to them the perfect way, nis mission. 
a mean between mortification and self-indulgence, and 
leading to rest, to knowledge, to enlightenment, to Nir- 
vana, by the eightfold path: " Right faith, The eightfold 
right resolve, right speech, right action, right P atlL 
living, right effort, right thought, right self-concentra- 
tion." This, his first sermon, is recorded in a form 
which, if it can scarcely be regarded as giving the actual 
words Buddha uttered, embody a very early form of what 
the Buddhist monks regarded as the essence of their 
master's teaching. As we read it, we realise more vividly 
how suffering was regarded by Hindus generally The origin of 
as the bane of existence, a feeling which might suffering. 
well arise in the ceaseless turmoil of strife and oppression 
among which they lived. "Birth is suffering, old age is 
suffering, sickness is suffering, death is suffering, to be 
united with the unloved is suffering, to be separated from 
the loved is suffering, not to obtain what one desires is 
suffering ; in short, the fivefold clinging to the earthly 
is suffering." 

" This, monks, is the sacred truth of the origin of 
suffering : it is the thirst for being, which leads from 
birth to birth, together with lust and desire, which finds 



t-4 LIFE OF BUDDHA. 

gratification liere and there ; the thirst for pleasures, the 
thirst for being, the thirst for power/' 

" This, monks, is the sacred truth of the extinction 
of suffering, the extinction of this thirst by complete 
annihilation of desire, letting it go, expelling it, separating 
oneself from it, giving it no room.' 7 He then expounded 
to them the eightfold path, by which he had attained 
the supreme Buddhahood in this world and the worlds 
of gods. Henceforth there was for him no new birth. 
The new doctrine is summed up thus : — "Walk in purity, 
to make an end of all suffering.' 7 

The five ascetics being the first converts, others soon 
began to flock round them, and Buddha sent them forth 
The freedom to preach in the surrounding country. A con- 
of Buddhism, spicuous feature in their teaching, contrasting 
markedly with that of the Brahmans, was their freedom 
from constraint, from forms, from ceremonies, from Phar- 
isaism. " I am loosed from all bands, divine and human, 77 
says Buddha. "Ye also, disciples, are loosed from all 
bands, divine and human. Go ye out, disciples, and 
travel from place to place for the welfare of many people, 
for the joy of many people, in pity for the world, for the 
blessing, welfare, and joy of gods and men. Go not in 
twos to one place. 77 

Returning then to Uruvela, where he had entered into 

the knowledge of deliverance, he preaches to a band of 

Early ascetics, whose leader, Kassapa, he converts 

converts, after performing numerous miracles, according 
to the records. The whole body then proceeded to Raja- 
gaha, the capital of Magadha (Behar), whose king, Bim- 
bisara, he converted ; this was followed by the conversion 
of many of the noble youths of Magadha, so much so as 
to lead to much murmuring, the people fearing that the 
ascetic was come to bring childlessness and widowhood 
and the subversion of families. 

From this time forward we can frame no proper history 

General °^ Buddha 7 s life ; but from the early records 

features of about him it is easy to realise the general 

Buddha's life. na ture of his career, although without those 

touches of individuality which Hebrews and Europeans 



THE BUDDHIST GARDENS. 125 

so well knew how to hand clown, but which have scarcely 
been noted by the Hindus and Chinese. This is partly 
because individuality, as we understand it. was largely 
undeveloped among them. Their civilisation created 
types rather than individuals, accustomed continually to 
do the same thing, feel similarly, and think alike. But 
one thing is certain ; in early Buddhism there is little 
trace of a contradictory spirit within the order, no trace 
of a disciple developing the master's teaching in new 
and unexpected directions, or making himself a second 
founder. Whether Buddha himself was all that he is 
described in the earliest records or not. he has no rival, 
and his disciples closely imitated what they believed him 
to have said or done. Thus the picture of Buddha's life 
will describe much of that of his immediate disciples. 

The contrast of the principal Indian seasons marks 
the two chief alternations in Buddha's life. The three 
rainy months necessitated a season of rest and Alternation of 
retirement in or near towns and villages ; and itinerancy 
this period was devoted partly to teaching the Wlth rest 
disciples who nocked round him. The rest of the year 
was spent by Buddha in travelling from place to place, 
attended by disciples, throughout the kingdoms of Kosala 
and Magadha and their neighbourhood, chiefly comprised 
within Ouclh and Behar. They do not appear to have 
entered Western Hindustan where Brahmanism had its 
stronghold. Near the chief cities of these kingdoms, 
Savatthi (now Sahet M ahet on the Rapti), and Rajagaha 
(now Rajgir), pleasant gardens were given to Buddha 
and his followers, well provided with places for lodging, 
eating, and assembling. "We may gather some idea of 
what these places were like from a description Tne Buddhist 
in one of the early Buddhist books. ' ; Not too gardens. 
far from, nor yet too near the town, well provided with 
entrances and exits, easily accessible to all people who 
inquire after it, with not too much of the bustle of life 
by day, quiet by night, far from commotion and the 
crowds of men. a place of retirement, a good spot for 
solitary meditation.'"' Here were beautiful groves of trees, 
pools in which the symbolic lotus grew, and every con- 



ii6 LIFE OF BUDDHA. 

venience for meetings ; and such on a smaller scale were 
provided in many other places. Among the visitors were 
strangers from distant countries, and those who had 
accepted the teaching of his disciples and longed to see 
him ; even kings and chiefs thronged to see him and to 
hear his teaching. In some cases the rulers of a town 
commanded every inhabitant to go forth and meet the 
Exalted One when arriving, under a heavy penalty. 

One of the most remarkable records in the Buddhist 
books is that relating the conversion of a courtesan, and 
Buddha and ^ s preference of her invitation to that of the 
the courtesan noblest people. This has been compared to a 
Ambapali. we ll_k nown incident in the life of Christ ; but 
it must be confessed that the resemblance is but super- 
ficial. The following is abridged from the "Book of the 
Great Decease.' 7 

" Now the courtesan Ambapali heard that the Blessed 
One had arrived at Vesali and was staying at her mango 
grove. And ordering a number of magnificent vehicles 
to be made ready, she mounted one of them, and pro- 
ceeded with her train towards her garden. She went in 
the carriage as far as the ground was passable for car- 
riages ; there she alighted, and she proceeded on foot to 
the place where the Blessed One was, and took her seat 
respectfully on one side, and when she was thus seated, 
the Blessed One instructed, aroused, incited, and glad- 
dened her with religious discourse. 

" Then she, instructed, aroused, incited, and gladdened 
with his words — addressed the Blessed One and said: — 
" ' May the Blessed One do me the honour of taking his 
meal, together with the brethren, at my house to- 
morrow.' 

"And the Blessed One gave by silence his consent. 
Then when Ambapali, the courtesan, saw that the Blessed 
One had consented, she rose from her seat and bowed 
down before him, and keeping him on her right hand 
as she passed him, she departed thence. 

" Now the Likhavis of Vesali (rich noble youths) heard 
that the Blessed One had arrived at Vesali, and was 
staying at Ambapali's grove, and proceeded to invite 



ANXIOUS INQUIRERS. 127 

Buddha to dinner the next day ; but he refused, saying 
he was already engaged to dine with Ambapali. 

" And the Blessed One robed himself early in the 
morning and took his bowl, and went with the brethren 
to the place where Ambapali's dwelling-house was ; and 
when he had come there he seated himself on the seat 
prepared for him, and Ambapali, the courtesan, set the 
sweet rice and cakes before the Order, with the Buddha 
at their head, and waited upon them till they refused 
any more. 

''And when the Blessed One had quite finished his 
meal, the courtesan had a low stool brought, and sat 
down at his side, and addressed the Blessed One, and 
said : ' Lord, I present this mansion to the order of men- 
dicants, of which Buddha is the chief? And the Blessed 
One accepted the gift ; and after instructing, and rousing, 
and inciting, and gladdening her with religious discourse, 
he rose from his seat and departed thence. :? 

Here it will be noted that there is absolutely no teaching 
special to the case. The regular formulas are supposed 
to have been uttered, and to have proved invincible, so 
that the hearer yielded absolutely. The great points are 
the condescending to take a meal with the courtesan (a 
woman of considerable property, nevertheless), and pre- 
ferring her invitation to that of rich young nobles, whose 
forms were compared with those of the Yeclic gods. 

Among those who visited Buddha are distinguished 
Brahmans, who seek enlightenment on their differences 
from him, and are brought to see the unreality Anxious 
of their own religious views and the truth of inquirers, 
the Buddhist belief, — as well as logical casuists, who lay 
traps for him, and seek to make him contradict himself. 
In fact all sorts and conditions of men, except apparently 
the poor, resort to Buddha to obtain the knowledge he 
had to impart ; and they usually signalise their adhesion 
to his order by giving him and his companions a dinner, 
followed again by spiritual instruction. "When he had 
no invitation, Buddha and his companions would traverse 
the town carrying bowls and seeking alms. As Dr. 
Oldenberg says : " In the days when his reputation stood 



128 LIFE OF BUDDHA. 

at its highest point, and his name was named throughout 
India among the foremost names, one might day by 
day see that man before whom kings bowed themselves, 
walking about, alms-bowl in hand, through streets and 
alleys, from house to house, and without uttering any 
request, with downcast look, stand silently waiting until 
a morsel of food was thrown into his bowl." 

But the great achievement of Buddha, apart from his 
doctrine, was his formation of a new society, composed 
The new order of the Bhikkhu or Bhiggu, which cannot be 
of monks, accurately rendered in its Buddhist sense. It 
has often been rendered " monks," but literally it signifies 
" beggar," " mendicant." Yet they did not, strictly speak- 
ing, beg at all ; they had given up all worldly things, 
but were not secluded from society, and hence were not 
strictly monks ; they took no vow of obedience, and could 
leave the order when they chose. They were not priests, 
as they had no rites to administer, and were not in any 
sense the vehicle of the worship of others. Perhaps the 
terms " brethren" or " members of the Order" would be 
least misleading ; but the name of monk is most used. 
Their outward signs of membership were the tonsure and 
a yellow garment. 

That Buddha should so readily have established a 
separated Order, shows that the idea of separation from 
the world to lead a religious life had already a wide 
influence in his time. It appears to have soon become 
a regular thing for convinced inquirers to profess their 
belief in the Blessed One, and to ask him to accept them 
as disciples and true believers ; and he would receive 
them in some such form as this : " Come hither, monk ; 
well preached is the doctrine, walk in purity, to make 
an end of all suffering." Having given all his property 
to the Order, or at any rate having renounced it, having 
quitted family ties, and vowed to live a life of chastity, 
they in many cases set out on their travels to spread the 
principles taught by the Buddha. Personal ambition, 
personal exaltation, vanity, self-seeking, henceforth had 
no place among them. Caste was abolished, or rather 
ignored, by these men who had renounced the world. 



BUDDHA NOT A SOCIALIST. 129 

Buddha is said to have answered a king thus : " If a 
slave or servant of the king puts on the yellow garment, 
and lives as a monk without reproach in thought, word, 
and deed, wouldest thou then say, Well then, let this 
man still be my slave and servant, to stand in my presence, 
bow before me. take upon himself to perform my behests, 
live to minister to my enjoyments, speak deferentially, 
hang upon my word?" And the king answers, "No, 
sire ; I should bow before him, stand before him, invite 
him to sit down, give him what he needed in the way 
of clothing, food, shelter, and of medicine when he is ill, 
and I should assure him of protection, watch and ward, 
as is becoming.*' And this treatment, it is inferred, is 
what Buddha approved. 

Prof. Oldenberg strongly combats the idea that Buddha 
was specially a social reformer, who broke the chains of 
caste, and raised the poor and humble to his Buddha not a 
spiritual kingdom. There is no notion in his socialist. 
teaching of upsetting the established order of things and 
supplanting it by a new one. " Buddha's spirit was 
a stranger to that enthusiasm, without which no one can 
pose as the champion of the oppressed against the op- 
pressor. Let the state and society remain what they are ; 
the religious man who as a monk has renounced the 
world, has no part in its cares and occupations. Caste 
has no value for him, for everything earthly has ceased 
to affect his interests ; but it never occurs to him to 
exercise his influence for its abolition or for the mitiga- 
tion of the severity of its rules for those who have lagged 
behind, in worldly surroundings." It is scarcely even 
true that Buddha practically presented an equal front to 
all classes of people. Those w T ho were among his early 
chosen adherents were almost exclusively drawn from 
the upper classes, nobles, Brahmans, merchants, educated 
persons. We find in early Buddhist w^orks such phrases 
as these : " Truly not undesired by the Exalted One is 
such an interview with such noble youths." " The good- 
will of such a respected and well-known person towards 
this doctrine and ordinance is of the highest importance.*' 
Scarcely can an isolated story be found of the reception 



130 LIFE OF BUDDHA. 

of a person of very low grade, such as the sweeper-away 
of withered flowers from temples and palaces ; and in 
his case the moral which specially follows is directed 
against the exclusiveness of the Brahmans. "By holy 
zeal and chaste living, by restraint and self-repression, 
thereby a man becomes a Brahman ; that is the highest 
Brahmanhood." The weak and children are scarcely 
mentioned. " To the wise belongeth this law," it was 
said, "not to the foolish." 

We need only briefly mention Buddha's principal ad- 
herents, as all resemble one another in purity, in the 
Buddha's attainment of perfect peace, and in devotion to 
principal Buddha : Sariputta and Moggallana, early con- 
adherents. ver £ s f rom Brahmanism, following him through 
life, but dying shortly before Buddha ; his own cousin 
Ananda, and his brother Devadatta ; TJpali, the court 
barber of the Sakyas. Ananda seems to have served 
as personal attendant to Buddha in his old age, and to 
have often accompanied him alone ; to him many of his 
last discourses were specially addressed. Devadatta is 
the traditional traitor, who sought to supplant his brother 
in chief influence, and is said to have attempted to kill 
him, a project which was frustrated by many recorded 
miracles. Devadatta is related to have attempted to 
enforce a more ascetic discipline on the monks, and to 
have failed miserably. 

Besides the monks, Buddha recognised lay believers, 
those who honoured his teaching as the truth, but who 
remained in the world, and were permitted to 
ay- e levers. ^*^^ gifts and exercise charity to the brethren 
of the Order. In fact this was but a recognition of the 
necessities of the case. If there were no adherents outside 
the mendicant members, and if all other persons were 
opponents, there would be little possibility of supporting 
the members ; of course their maintenance in such a 
country as India cost very little, but still it was needed 
and had to be provided. No special form of reception 
of lay-adherents was provided, and they never had any 
share in the government of Buddhism. And as with 
regard to the brethren or monks, so with regard to the 



RECEPTION OF SISTERS OR NUNS. 131 

lay-adherents, much more prominence is given to the 
princes and nobles, Brahmans and merchants, who appear 
to have constituted by far the largest proportion of them, 
than to the poor. Thus Buddha and his monks gathered 
round them crowds of votaries who could receive and 
maintain them and convene assemblies to hear them speak, 
or who accompanied them in various vehicles or on foot. 

In relation to women Buddha was in some respects 
more liberal and in some less so than the Brahmans. 
Brahmanism expected the Vedic student to women and 
become a householder, to marry, and to bring Buddhism, 
up a family to continue the sacrificial rites ; yet women 
were kept strictly in a subordinate, practically in a servile 
position. Buddhist monks were to abjure marriage and 
intimate relations with women, as utterly inconsistent 
with their profession ; but women were admissible as 
sisters of the Order, analogous to nuns, under severe 
restraints as to intimacy with men. Women were recog- 
nised as lay-adherents, and indeed the maintenance of 
the Order would have been very much more difficult 
without their ministrations. But the toleration and even 
welcome of women came rather late in the day. At an 
early period, when Buddha was asked by Ananda how 
the brethren should behave to women, he answers, " Don't 
look at them " ; and when further pressed, " If we should 
see them, what are we to do?" he replies, "Don't speak 
to them " ; and again, " If they should speak to us, what 
are we to do?" "Keep wide awake," is the master's 
advice, or as another translation has it, "Keep watch 
over yourselves," and that this view continued in con- 
siderable force may be gathered from the moral of .one 
of the later Buddhist narratives, — " Unfathomably deep, 
like a fish's course in the water, is the character of 
women, robbers with many artifices, with whom truth 
is hard to find, to whom a lie is like the truth and the 
truth like a lie." 

But wider experience somewhat modified Buddha's 
attitude towards women, though not without Reception of 
much hesitation. His foster-mother and his sisters 
disciple Ananda at last persuaded him, on the or nuns ' 



132 LIFE OF BUDDHA, 

ground that women were capable of realising the four- 
fold path. He. however, imposed upon them eight rules, 
such as that a nun, of however long standing, was always 
to serve and to rise in the presence of a monk, even if 
only just initiated ; and in several respects nuns were 
placed in subordination to the monks ; they must be in- 
itiated by monks as well as nuns, and receive admonition 
from monks. But Buddha is very mournful, and is 
represented as saying that the good law will not now 
last more than five hundred years. As when mildew or 
blight visits a crop, it does not last long, so " under what- 
ever discipline women are allowed to go forth from the 
household life into the homeless state, that religion does 
not last long. And just as a man would in anticipation 
build an embankment to a great reservoir, so have I laid 
down these eight chief rules for the sisters, not to be 
overpassed through their life.' 7 The female disciples were 
to adopt the same rules as the men, so far as applicable ; 
and the general rule was applied, that whatever doctrines 
conduced to peace and not to passion, to veneration and 
not to pride, to wishing for little and not to wishing for 
much, to seclusion and not to love of society, to the 
exercise of zeal and not to sloth, to content and not to 
querulousness, these doctrines were the teaching of the 
Master. A great many disabilities and restrictions as to 
wearing apparel, decoration of the body and face, habits 
and occupations, etc., were imposed. Nevertheless, Bud- 
dha and his followers frequently received large hospitality 
from women, who, however, were to regard themselves 
as benefited by being allowed to give anything to the 
saints. Visakha, a rich and noble woman of Savatthi, 
voluntarily offered clothing, food, and medicine for both 
incoming and outgoing monks, asking this as a boon. 
Buddha's response was : " Whatsoever woman, upright 
in life, a disciple of the Happy One, gives, glad at heart 

*£* On the opposite page is represented one of the elaborate gate- 
ways of a solid stupa or tope, as old as Asoka's time ; the sculptures 
on the gateways (about 35 feet high) represent scenes from the life 
of Buddha, and other Buddhist legends. They date probably from 
the first century a.d. 



EAST GATE OF THE GREAT TOPE, SANCHL 133 




EAST GATE OE THE GREAT TOPE, SANCHI, NEAR EHILSA, BHOPAL. 



134 LIFE OF BUDDHA. 

and overcoming avarice, botli food and drink — a gift 
heavenly, destructive of sorrow, productive of bliss — a 
heavenly life does she attain, entering upon the path that 
is free from corruption and impurity ; aiming at good, 
happy does she become, and free from sickness, and long 
does she rejoice in a heavenly body." 

It is striking how little we hear of active opposition 
to Buddha in the Buddhist literature. This of course 
may proceed from concealment ; but seeing the 
undoubted great prosperity of Buddhism, serious 
opponents would have been mentioned, if only to show 
how they had been overthrown. But Buddhism arose 
in the eastern land where Brahmanism had not taken 
such strong root as in the north-west. Numerous bodies 
of ascetics and religious freethinkers had arisen ; and we 
must bear in mind the predominant religiousness of the 
Hindus, which would lead them naturally to revere a 
seeker after religious truth, especially one who renounced 
worldly possessions, and who did not in any way disturb 
the general peace and order. In fact the asceticism 
sanctioned or encouraged by the Brahman literature and 
practice had numerous points of resemblance to that of 
Buddha. Yet it could only be in a country where high 
Brahman pretensions were already questioned, or denied, 
that Buddha could have so severely criticised their system. 
Sacrifices, Vedic teaching, caste, were to him as nothing. 
In a kind of Socratic method, when questioned by Brah- 
mans as to the right path, Buddha makes them acknow- 
ledge that the paths announced in the Vedas have not 
enabled any of the Brahmans to see Brahma face to face, 
or to know him, or where and whence he is ; and he 
declares that the boasted knowledge of the Brahmans is 
Brahmans foolishness : " As when a string of blind men 
confuted. are clinging one to the other, neither can the 
foremost see, nor can the middle one see, nor can the 
hindmost see." This is followed by an elaborate series 
of images demonstrating the same thing. The Brahmans, 
he says, are hindered from knowing the truth by five 
obstacles, — lustful desire, malice, sloth and idleness, pride 
and self-righteousness, and doubt. All these things are 



HE ANSWERS THE B RAHMANS. 135 

absent from Brahma, and consequently the Brahmans 
could never become united with. him. In answer to the 
appeal that he would show the Brahmans the way to a 
state of union with Brahma, Buddha says that from time 
to time an unsurpassed teacher is born into the world as 
a guide to erring mortals, a fully enlightened one, a 
blessed Buddha. He thoroughly understands the universe, 
gods and men, and makes his knowledge known to others. 
" The truth doth he proclaim both in its letter and in its 
spirit, lovely in its origin, lovely in its progress, lovely in 
its consummation ; the higher life doth he make known, 
in all its purity and in all its perfectness." A householder 
hears the truth and believes in the Buddha and then con- 
siders, "Full of hindrances is household life, a path defiled 
by passion ; free as the air is the life of him who has 
renounced all worldly things. How difficult is it for the 
man who dwells at home to live the higher life in all its 
fulness, in all its purity, in all its bright perfection ! Let 
me then cut off my hair and beard, let me clothe myself 
in the orange-coloured robes, and let me go forth from a 
household life into the homeless state ! " 

" Then, before long, forsaking his portion of wealth, be 
it great or be it small ; forsaking his circle of relatives, 
be they many or be they few, he cuts off his hair and 
beard, he clothes himself in the orange-coloured robes, 
and he goes forth from the household life into the home- 
less state. 

"When he has thus become a recluse, he passes a life 
self-restrained according to the rules of the Pattimokka ; 
uprightness is his delight, and he sees . danger in the least 
of these things he should avoid ; he adopts and trains 
himself in the precepts ; he encompasses himself with 
holiness in word and deed ; he sustains his life by means 
that are quite pure ; good is his conduct, guarded the door 
of his senses ; mindful and self-possessed, he is altogether 
happy." (S.E.) 

Buddha is equally prepared to expound to Brahmans 
the essentials of a proper sacrifice. A great king of 
former days, he says, after great exploits, and establishing 
peace and prosperity in his land, and remedying evils, 



136 LIFE OF BUDDHA. 

made a great sacrifice at which no animals were slain 
and no trees were cut down ; simply libations of milk, oil, 

The test & n( i honey were offered. But Buddha proclaims 

sacrifice, that a better and easier sacrifice than that, is 
to make gifts to pious monks, and build dwelling-places 
for him and his Order. A higher offering was to accept 
Buddha's doctrine ; higher still to become a monk ; while 
the highest offering was to obtain deliverance, and the 
knowledge, " I shall not again return to this world. 77 

How far the rival ascetic bodies and their leaders 
openly disputed the progress of Buddha we cannot tell. 
Later we find some traces of interchange of civilities 
between them, and also some attempts to deprive each 
other of the aid of influential people. Buddha's greatest 
distinction from the various brotherhoods was his dispar- 
agement of self-mortification. He had discovered that 
this last was gloomy, unworthy, unreal. The life of 
pleasure and sensual enjoyment was base and ignoble. 
The perfect life was the middle way, the eight-fold path. 
Thus he exemplified with remarkable force the strength 
which lies in a middle course ; it certainly powerfully 
helped to make his the religious community with the 
largest following in the world. 

The general method of Buddha's teaching was oral 
and conversational. Such a thing as writing a book was 

Method not then dreamt of, although book-learning 
of teaching-. was highly developed. But learning by heart 
seemed then the only possible or stable form of it ; and 
no doubt it was once thought a great innovation, and 
probably an unreasonable thing, for any one to attempt 
to write out a book in full, when it was so easy and so 
common to commit the contents to memory. We, with 
our comparatively feeble recollections of the contents of 
any given book, do not realise a state of society when 
people who were learned knew their few books by heart 
more perfectly than most of us know anything. But 
personal teaching was then as influential as it ever has 
been, perhaps more so. The accounts given of Buddha's 
interviews with disciples, even if not precisely accurate, 
must represent a kind of interview which was the com- 



LONG-DRAWN DISSERTATIONS. 137 

mon type of such, teaching, and which at that very early 
age was accepted as the type of his teaching. Unlike 
the Vedic books, which are in the pure high Sanskrit, the 
books of Buddhism are in the popular dialect ; and in 
the sayings attributed to Buddha there is no trace of 
Sanskrit being used. Indeed, he is reported to have 
given directions that every believer should learn the 
words of Buddha in his own tongue. 

Everything in the Buddhist narratives bears the stamp 
of an age which had become accustomed to solemn, long- 
drawn dissertations, and in which people of Long-drawn 
leisure, or who had abandoned the world, gave dissertations, 
themselves up to continual speculation on the causes 
of various phenomena, or of troubles and difficulties. 
There is no trace of a life like our hurried modern one, 
in which only the smallest possible time is given to any 
one thing. With these old Hindus there was always 
plenty of time if a discussion was on foot, and it must 
be conducted in an orderly, sober fashion, with due 
ceremony and full elaboration. The great heat caused 
a tendency to indolent gravity and long-drawn-out ex- 
pression. Compression and selection were scarcely at- 
tempted. The Upanishads, even if not composed before 
the Buddhist books, were in existence about the same 
time, and testify to the widespread spirit of abstraction 
and philosophising. So that the form of Buddhist teaching 
was due to the spirit of the more educated among the 
Hindus, as it had been developed by the Vedic and post- 
Vedic literature. Although there is considerable variety 
in the matter and often much beauty in the illustrations 
used in the discourses attributed to Buddha, the following 
gives an idea of a method frequently followed by him. 

He is expressing the thought that all the senses and 
the outer things which they perceive are eaten away by 
the sorrows and the fleeting nature of mortal affairs. He 
thus addresses the thousand disciples or monks who were 
with him. " Then said the Blessed One to the disciples : 
' Everything, disciples, is in flames. And what Every- 
thing, disciples, is in flames ? The eye, disciples, is 
in flames ; the visible is in flames ; the knowledge of the 



138 LIFE OF BUDDHA. 

visible is in flames ; the contact with the visible is in 
flames, the feeling which arises from contact with the 
visible, be it pleasure, be it pain, be it neither pleasure 
nor pain, this also is in flames. By what fire is it 
kindled ? By the fire of desire, by the fire of hate, by 
the fire of fascination, it is kindled ; by birth, old age, 
death, pain, lamentation, sorrow, grief, despair, it is 
kindled : thus I say. The ear is in flames/ " and so on 
through a similar repetition of every detail ; and the 
same with the senses of smell, taste, touch, and with the 
mind, forming a long discourse, very monotonous to us, 
but probably delighting the hearers. It then goes on, 
" Considering this, disciples, a wise hearer, walking in 
the noble path, becomes weary of the eye, weary of 
visible things/' and so on through the whole detail once 
more. Then, " becoming weary of all that, he becomes 
free from desire ; free from desire he becomes delivered ; 
in the delivered arises the knowledge, I am delivered ; re- 
birth is at an end, perfected is holiness, duty done ; there 
is no more returning to this world ; he knows this." 
When this discourse had been delivered, the minds of 
these thousand disciples became free from attachment to 
the world. (0.) 

The mode of converting a noble youth who was already 
mentally prepared is thus represented (Mahavagga I. 7, 

A noble S.E.). "At that time there was in Benares a 

youth's noble youth, Yasa by name, the son of a trea- 
conversion. surer? an( j delicately nurtured. He had three 
palaces, one for winter, one for summer, and one for the 
rainy season. In the palace for the rainy season he lived 
during the four months of that season, surrounded with 
female musicians among whom no man was, and he did 
not descend from that palace all that time. Now one 
day Yasa, the noble youth, who was endowed with and 
possessed of the five pleasures of sense, while he was 
attended by those female musicians, fell asleep sooner 
than usual : and after him his attendants also fell asleep. 
Now an oil lamp was burning through the whole night. 

" And Yasa, the noble youth, awoke sooner than usual ; 
and he saw his attendants sleeping ; one had her lute 



A NOBLE YOUTH'S CONVERSION. 139 

leaning against her armpit, one had her tabor leaning 
against her neck, one had her drum leaning against her 
armpit, and one had dishevelled hair, one had saliva 
flowing from her mouth, and they were muttering in 
their sleep. One would think it was a cemetery one had 
fallen into. When he saw that, the evils of the life he 
led manifested themselves to him ; his mind became 
weary of worldly pleasures. And Yasa, the noble youth, 
gave utterance to this solemn exclamation : ' Alas ! what 
distress ; alas ! what danger ! ? So he went on into the 
night and sought Buddha, who was walking up and down 
at dawn. To him he expressed his distress. Buddha 
replied to him, ' Here is no distress, Yasa ; here is no 
danger. Come here, Yasa, sit down ; I will teach you 
the truth ' (Dhamma). And Yasa, the noble youth, when 
he heard that there was no distress, and that there was 
no danger, became glad and joyful ; and he put off his 
gilt slippers, and went to the place where the Blessed 
One w r as ; having approached him and having respectfully 
saluted the Blessed One, he sat down near him. Then 
the Blessed One preached to him in clue course : that is 
to say, he talked about the merits obtained by almsgiving, 
about the duties of morality, about heaven, about the 
evils, the vanity, and the sinfulness of desires, and about 
the blessings of the abandonment of desire. 

" When the Blessed One saw that the mind of Yasa, 
the noble youth, was prepared, impressible, free from 
obstacles, elated, and believing, then he preached what is 
the principal doctrine of the Buddhas, namely, Suffering, 
the cause of suffering, the cessation of suffering, the 
Path.*' So Yasa became a convert and subsequently a 
monk ; and his father also received the truth, which fact 
is thus elaborately expressed : " The treasurer, the house- 
holder, having seen the truth, having mastered the truth, 
having penetrated the truth, having overcome uncertainty, 
having dispelled all doubts, having gained full knowledge, 
dependent on nobody else for the knowledge of the doc- 
trine of the Teacher, said to the Blessed One : l Glorious 
Lord ! Glorious Lord ! just as if one should set up, Lord, 
what had been overturned, or should reveal what had 



l4o LIFE OF BUDDHA. 

"been hidden, or should point out the way to one who had 
lost his way, or should bring a lamp into the darkness, 
thus has the Blessed One preached the doctrine in many 
ways. I take my refuge in the Blessed One, and in the 
Truth, and in the Order of the monks ; may the Blessed 
One receive me from this day forth while my life lasts, 
as a disciple who has taken his refuge in him.' 7 These 
are typical stories ; whether it is that there was not much 
necessity for adaptation to the individual cases, or that 
such individual touches have been lost by the narration, 
we find little but general teaching. There is one simple 
consistent teaching, one refuge for all who would attain 
full knowledge, — to join the Order of monks. 

Something like the Socratic method is not infrequently 
made use of when an argument is held with a learned 

socratic person. Thus, in arguing with Brahmans, 

method. Buddha says: "Is Brahma in possession of 
wives and wealth, or is he not ? " — " He is not." " Is his 
mind full of anger, or free from anger? " — "Free from 
anger. 5 ' "Is his mind full of malice, or free from malice? 7 ' 
— "Free from malice." "Is his mind depraved, or pure?" 
— "It is pure." "Has he self-mastery, or. has he not?" 
— "He has." "Now, what think you, are Brahmans 
versed in the Vedas in the possession of wives and 
wealth, or are they not?" — "They are." And so on 
through all the questions ; leading to the triumphant 
reply: "Can there then be agreement and likeness be- 
tween the Brahmans with their wives and property, and 
Brahma who has none of these things ? " 

It is noteworthy how frequently parables and similes 
are made use of in the higher Buddhist teaching. Here 
is an instance. 

" Just as when a hen has eight or ten or twelve eggs, 
and the hen has properly brooded over them, properly 
sat upon them, properly sat herself round them, 
however much such a wish may arise in her 
heart as this, " Oh, would that my little chickens should 
break open the egg-shell with the points of their claws, 
or with their beaks, and come forth into the light in 
safety ! " yet all the while those little chickens are sure 



PARABLES. 14 r 

to break the egg-shell with the points of their claws, or 
with their beaks, and to come forth into the light in 
safety. Just even so, a brother thus endowed with 
fifteenfold determination is sure to come forth into the 
light, sure to reach up to the higher wisdom, sure to 
attain, to the supreme security." The lesson is, that the 
result is quite certain, however much doubt the hen or 
the believer may have about it. (S.E. xi.) 

In one place Buddha says : "I shall show you a parable; 
by a parable many a wise man perceives the meaning 
of what is being said.*' His own preaching is compared 
to the physician's work, drawing poisoned arrows from 
wounds, and overcoming the venom by remedies. Like 
the lotus flower, raising its head in the lake, unaffected 
by the water, so the Buclclhas are unaffected by the 
world's impurity. One of the most elaborate parables 
is the following, part of which we quote. " As when, 
disciples, in the forest, on a mountain slope, there lies 
a great tract of lowland and water, where a great herd 
of deer lives, and there comes a man who desires hurt, 
distress, and danger for the deer ; who covers over and 
shuts up the path which is safe, good, and pleasant to 
take, and opens up a fresh path, a swampy path, a marshy 
track : thenceforward the great herd of cleer incurs hurt 
and danger, and diminishes. But now, disciples, if a 
man comes, who desires prosperity, welfare, and safety 
for this great herd of deer : who clears and opens up the 
path which is safe, good, and pleasant to take, and does 
away with the false path, and abolishes the swampy path, 
the marshy track, thenceforth will the great herd of deer 
thrive, grow, and increase. I have spoken to you. 
disciples, in a parable, to make known my meaning. But 
the meaning is this. The great lowland and the w r ater, 
disciples, are pleasures. The great herds of deer are 
living men. The man who devises hurt, distress, and 
ruin, is Mara, the evil one. The false path is the eight- 
fold false path, false faith, false resolve, false speech, false 
action, false living, false effort, false thought, false self- 
concentration. The swampy way is pleasure and desire. 
The swampy track is ignorance. The man who clevises 



142 LIFE OF BUDDHA. 

prosperity, welfare, salvation, is the Perfect One, the holy 




COLOSSAL FIGUEE OF BUDDHA, CEYLON. 

supreme Buddha. The safe good way in which it is well 



HIS LAST TEMPTATION. 

145 
to walk, is the eightfold path/' etc. " Everything tk 

a master who seeks the salvation of his disciples, whca 

pities them, must do out of pity for them, that have I 

done for you." (0.) Fables, too, were not infrequently 

introduced into Buddha's discourses. 

THE BOOK OF THE GREAT DECEASE. 

We now come to the record of Buddha's death and 
the events immediately preceding it, contained in the 
"Book of the Great Decease," which has been compared 
to a gospel. This book comes to us apparently from the 
latter end of the fourth or beginning of the third century 
B.C., about a hundred years after Buddha's death. The 
author is unknown. The date of Buddha's death cannot 
be determined from it, but he appears to have been about 
eighty years of age, and to have exercised his public 
mission for about forty-four years. He is represented as 
journeying from Rajagaha, the capital of Magadha, to 
Pataliputta (Patna), the new capital, whose future great- 
ness he prophesies. The narrative throughout contains 
summaries of discourses and directions which 
Buddha had probably given on previous dates, prepares for 
Journeying on, he was attacked by a severe nis final 

C ' «/ r\ 1 OP All T*^I £k 

illness, which he subdued temporarily by great 
resolution, having a strong desire to give a farewell 
address to the Order. He asserts to Ananda that he has 
kept back nothing, and he no longer wished to lead the 
brotherhood or thought that the Order was dependent 
upon him. " I too, Ananda, am now grown old and 
full of years, my journey is drawing to its close, I have 
reached my sum of days, I am turning eighty years of 
age ; and just as a worn-out cart, Ananda, can only with 
much additional care be made to move along, so, methinks, 
the body of the Enlightened One can only be kept going 
with much additional care." He advised his people to 
be a refuge to themselves, and not look for any other, 
and above all, be anxious to learn. The tempter His last 
Mara came to him, suggesting that he should temptation, 
voluntarily die at once, as all his objects were accom- 



142 LIFE OF BUDDHA. 

pushed; he however still elected to live three months. 
And the narrative goes on : " Thus the Blessed One 
deliberately and consciously rejected the rest of his 
allotted sum of life, and on his rejecting it there arose 
a mighty earthquake, awful and terrible, and the thun- 
ders of heaven burst forth, and when the Blessed One 
beheld this, he broke out into this hymn of exultation : — 

' His sum of life the sage renounced, 
The course of life immeasurable or small ; 
With inward joy and calm, he broke, 
Like coat of mail, his life's own cause.' " 

He then gave a summary of his most essential teachings 
to the assembled disciples, and concluded thus : — 

" My age is now full ripe, my life draws to its close : 
I leave you, I depart, relying on myself alone ! 
Be earnest then, brethren ! holy, full of thought ! 
Be steadfast in resolve ! Keep watch o'er your own hearts ! 
Who wearies not, but holds fast to this truth and law, 
Shall cross this sea of life, shall make an end of grief." 

After still a few days' journeying, Buddha was seized 

with dysentery attended with sharp pain, which he bore 

without complaint. At last he arrived at 

is ea . j^ ug j nara w here he died, even in his last hours 
converting new disciples. His last words were, " Behold 
now, brethren, I exhort you, saying, Decay is inherent 
in all component things. Work out your salvation with 
diligence." His death was followed by earthquakes and 
thunders, and Brahma, the Supreme Deity or First Cause, 
is represented as uttering some of the most characteristic 
Buddhist doctrines, while his venerable disciple Anuruddha 
spoke thus :— 

" "When he who from all craving want was free, 
Who to Nirvana's tranquil state had reached, 
When the great sage finished his span of life, 
No gasping struggle vexed that steadfast heart. 

All resolute, and with unshaken mind, 
He calmly triumphed o'er the pain of death. 
E'en as a bright flame dies away, so was 
His last deliverance from the bonds of life ! " 



HIS FUNERAL. 145 

His funeral was celebrated by the nobles of Kusinara 
with the honours due to a king of kings, wrapping his 
body in five hundred alternate layers of cotton wool and 
new cloth, enclosing it in two iron vessels, and finally 
cremating it on a funeral pile made of perfumes. Finally, 
the legend says that neither soot nor ash was left, but 
only the bones. Then the relics were divided into eight 
portions, over each of which a mound was erected by the 
respective groups who had claimed and obtained them. 




%'WMW : ^ 



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THE ROYAL MONASTERY AT MANDALAY. 



CHAPTER VI. 

COe Bntitiftfet 23ortrim$ antr £>mtb Books. 

Reaction from Brahmanism— Suffering" and ignorance— The Eternal Immut- 
able—Vanity of earthly thing's— The causal nexus— Human responsi- 
bility—Punishment of evil— Being and causality— The soul— Nirvana- 
Moral precepts— Negative morality— Benevolence —Beneficence —Self-dis- 
cipline— Temptation— Mara— The struggle and victory of the soul- 
States of abstraction— The four grades of attainment— The person of 
Buddha— The Buddhist Scriptures— The Dhammapada. 

IT is one of the strangest phenomena, that the system 
holding itself forth so prominently as the bringer of 
happiness and extinguisher of suffering should be fitly 
Reaction called a philosophy of pessimism, of negation, 
from of agnosticism. Yet it was a natural reaction 
Brahmanism. f rom ^q Brahman assumption of knowing 
everything, and that everything would be right if its 
management were committed to Brahmans. In only one 
direction did the Buddhists claim to attain knowledge, 
that was the path by which to attain deliverance from 
suffering, and ultimate Nirvana. The kernel of this doc- 

146 



VANITY GF EARTHLY THINGS. 147 

trine we have already given (p. 12*2). The suffering 

-which Buddha bewails is not merely active pain and 
misery, but also the want of control which suffering 
our self has over the bocty and consciousness. and 
Everything, too, is non-permanent, and that is 1 §' norance - 
a sorrow r ; consequently a man is not sure of himself, and 
cannot say, " That is mine, that is I, that is myself." 
The root cause of this is ignorance ; but wdiile we might 
agree with the Buddhists that ignorance lies at the root 
of much if not of all evil, the Buddhists have their own 
interpretation of what ignorance constitutes this great 
evil ; it is the ignorance of their four sacred truths, and 
these truths contain no allusion to any notion of nihilism, 
to the Nothing and nothingness as the supreme attain- 
ment, which is sometimes represented as the essential 
of Buddhist pessimism. Far from being of this nature, 
Buddhism has a positive if limited philosoplry, and 
elevates its gaze to the highest ancl most permanent 
existence, regarding the Eternal Immutable, The 
supremely free and happy. There is the only Eternal 

*^ Tm vnn+n V»1 a 

refuge of man from suffering, where birth and 
death, change and decay have no dominion. Man must 
seek deliverance from the mutable, and return to the 
Immutable: w r hether that may lead to eternal existence 
or not, is left undetermined. Buddha never pretended 
to know ; rather he left it to be inferred that he did not 
know. His object was gained, as well as the happiness 
of his followers in this world, wdien they had attained 
" deliverance," release from desire, union with the Im- 
mutable. 

Never has" the vanity of earthly things, so succinctly 
expressed by the Old Testament Preacher, been so elabo- 
rately set forth as in the Buddhist books. Vanity of 
Listen to its sad strain. " The pilgrimage earthly 
of beings, disciples, has its beginning in thin S" s - 
eternity. No opening can be discovered, from which 
proceeding, creatures, mazed in ignorance, fettered by 
a thirst for being, stray ancl wander. "What think ye, 
disciples, whether is more, the w r ater wdiich is in the 
four great oceans, or the tears which have flowed from 



148 THE BUDDHIST DOCTRINES. 

you and been shed by yon, while ye strayed and wandered 
on this long pilgrimage, and sorrowed and wept, becanse 
that was your portion that ye abhorred, and that which 
ye loved was not your portion? A mother's death, a 
father's death, a brother's death, a sister's death, a son's 
death, a daughter's death, the loss of relations, the loss 
of property, all this have ye experienced through long 
ages ; and while ye experienced this through long ages 
more tears have flowed from you and have been shed by 
you, while ye strayed and wandered on this long pil- 
grimage, and sorrowed and wept, because that was your 
portion which ye abhorred and that which ye loved was 
not your portion, than all the water which is in the four 
great oceans." (0.) And so on through the whole range 
of mortal affairs. 

The Dhammapada, that notable collection of Buddhist 
apophthegms, proverbs, and similes, which existed before 
the second council (377 B.C.), contains some of the most 
pithy sayings of melancholy. " Man gathers flowers ; his 
heart is set on pleasure. Death comes upon him, like 
the floods of water on a village, and sweeps him away." 
" How can ye be gay? How can ye indulge desire? 
Evermore the flames burn. Darkness surrounds you : 
will ye not seek the light ? " " Look upon the world as 
a bubble; look upon it as a mirage." " There is no 
satisfying lusts, even by a shower of gold pieces." " Let 
no man love anything ; loss of the beloved is evil. Those 
who love nothing, and hate nothing, have no fetters." 
"From love comes grief ; from love comes fear." Yet in 
association with these sad views throughout we have the 
joyful standard raised aloft. He who has learnt the 
sacred truths of Buddhism has overcome these evils and 
entered into joy. " The virtuous man is happy in this 
world, and he is happy in the next ; he is happy in 
both. He is happy when he thinks of the good he has 
done ; he is still more happy when going on the good 
path." " Earnest among the thoughtless, awake among 
the sleepers, the wise man advances like a racer, leaving 
behind the track." " Let no man think lightly of good, 
saying in his heart, it will not come nigh unto me. Even 



PUNISHMENT OF EVIL. 149 

by the falling of water-drops a waterpot is filled ; the 
wise man becomes full of good, even if he gather it little 
by little." '* Let us live happily, free from greed among 
the greedy." " His good works receive him who has 
done good, and has gone from this world to the other ; 
as kinsmen receive a friend on his return." 

We cannot fully expound what is known as the causal 
nexus in Buddhism, but this in itself has never been 
taught to the masses, and was only for the more Tne causal 
intellectual ; while to western minds it is con- nexus, 
fused and inconclusive and more or less self-contradictory. 
We find that Buddhism, like most other human systems, 
has failed to express, though it has verged near to the 
core of, philosophical questions. What is certain is, that 
the early Buddhists regarded the consciousness as the 
sole continuing thing, while at death the body, sensations 
and perceptions vanish ; and this consciousness was con- 
nected with a sort of spirit-stuff or element, undemon- 
strable, everlasting, all-illuminating ; it passes over at 
death to become associated with the germ of a new 
material being to be born again. The succession of re- 
births must continue until the being attains " deliverance," 
as made known by Buddhism. 

Although expressed in a widely different form from 
our own, we see throughout Buddhism an assertion of 
human responsibility which tends in the highest Human re- 
degree to morality. However much we may sponsibiiity. 
be conditioned by our previous state as by our environ- 
ment, we are always affected by our own actions. As 
explicitly as in the Christian Bible, we find stated that 
"not in 'the heavens, not in the midst of the sea, not 
if thou hiclest thyself away in the clefts of the mountains, 
wilt thou find a place on earth where thou canst escape 
the fruit of thy evil actions " (Dhammapada Punishment 
v. 127). Even when the way of deliverance of eviL 
has been attained, a man will still suffer punishment for 
evil-doing not yet expiated. Thus, a robber and mur- 
derer who became a Buddhist was violently attacked 
when he went to collect alms ; and Buddha tells him 
he was now receiving the penalty for evil deeds for which 



150 THE BUDDHIST DOCTRINES. 

otherwise lie would have had to suffer thousands of years 
in hell. A judgment scene is depicted, in which the 
wicked man is brought up from hell before King Yama, 
who inquires of him whether he did not see on earth 
the five visions of human weakness and suffering, — the 
child, the old man, the sick man, the criminal under 
punishment, and the dead man. He is further asked 
whether he did not consider that he was not exempt 
from old age and death, and ought to do good in thought, 
word, and deed. Confessing that he had neglected it, 
he is told that he alone is responsible, and must gather 
the fruit. The warders of hell take him away and subject 
him to the severest physical torments, ending in death 
only wdien his guilt is fully expiated. 

One aspect of the Buddhist doctrine of causality is well 
illustrated by the following. " Whoever perceives in 

Being and truth and wisdom how things originate in the 

causality, world, in his eyes there is no l it is not' in 
this world. "Whoever perceives in truth and Vvisdom now 
things pass away in this world, in his eyes there is no 
4 it is ' in this world. . . . Sorrow alone arises where 
anything arises ; sorrow passes away where anything 
passes away. ' Everything is ' ; this is the one extreme : 
4 everything is not/ this is the other extreme. The 
Perfect One, remaining far from both these extremes, 
proclaims the truth in the middle. ' From ignorance 
come conformations (sankharas)/ ' ? forms of being deter- 
mining their own successions and successive forms. 
There is no thought of an independent matter apart from 
an existence or being. Every perception, every condition, 
bodily or spiritual, is one of these sankharas, and all are 
transitory, all under the control of causality. Bej^ond 
this Buddhism does not attempt to go ; it does not know 
the Eternal, or how the world w r as created, or whether 
it is everlasting or finite. 

Buddhism even does not allow that there is a soul 
distinct from the body. Practically it only recognises 
the combined being that is seen or is conscious 
of itself, and that suffers ; and it has no ex- 
planation beyond. Reduced to its loAvest term, Buddhism 



MORAL PRECEPTS. j 5 i 

recognises simply that suffering is going on, or keeps 
coming and going ; without defining any permanent soul 
that suffers. All on this earth is under the dominion of 
causality. 

The state of Nirvana, Buddha held, may be entered 
upon before the death of the body, and therefore it is 
not identical with annihilation, as has often 
been represented. Although its meaning is 
extinction, it is the extinction of desire, of suffering, of 
error, of ignorance ; and it is termed the eternal state. 
What that eternal state is, early Buddhism in no way 
determines. Hence the Nirvana may perhaps best be 
regarded as the perfection which the Buddhist attains in 
this life. " What is to be extinguished has been extin- 
guished, the fire of lust, hatred, bewilderment.*' In this 
state the devout disciple says, "I long not for death, I 
long not for life ; I wait till mine hour come, like a 
servant who awaiteth his reward." Yet the Buddhist 
may truly be said to anticipate extinction of the conscious- 
ness on dying. Yet even that is consistent in his eyes 
with an imagined completion of his being, which no 
terms applicable to earthly things can possibly describe. 
And those who wished to cherish a hope of continual 
existence and perfect happiness were permitted to do so. 

The moral system taught by Buddha as obligatory 
upon his followers can be separated from the system and 
rules of his monastic order. It is not a little Moral 
curious to find moral precepts at that early precepts, 
time not based upon obedience to a Supreme Ruler of the 
world, or a Creator, and consequently not based upon any 
duty of 'human beings to obey a Supreme Ruler. In 
fact, this moral law is entirely utilitarian, taking its stand 
solely upon benefits obtainable b} r the doer, or punish- 
ments to be incurred by him. Further than this, that 
we hear of no one being repelled by Buddha who sought 
to learn the truth, it does not appear that Buddhism con- 
cerned itself with the mass of mankind even so far as 
to give precepts available for them all, or to preach 
deliverance to them all. It is evident that this has not 
hindered the very wide spread of the society ; and the 



152 THE BUDDHIST DOCTRINES. 

declaration that they had a message only for those who 
recognised their evil state and desired deliverance no 
doubt acted as a stimulus to the outer masses so far as 
they were in an intellectual state capable of aspiring after 
something better. But Buddhism did not lay itself out 
to tell all people that they ought to do or to be so-and-so 
every day, always, everywhere. Only when they sought 
discipleship, lay or mendicant, did Buddhism furnish 
them with a code of observance, which included moral 
duties, undertaken for the purpose of elevating their 
own state Thus "He who speaks or acts with impure 
thoughts, him sorrow follows, as the wheel follows the 
foot of the draught horse. He who speaks or acts with 
pure thought, him joy follows, like his shadow, which 
does not leave him." 

The third to the sixth portions of the noble eightfold 
path more specially concern morals. The first and second, 
correct views, free from superstition or delusion, and right 
aims or correct thoughts, worthy of an intelligent man, 
are specially intellectual. The third, right speech, per- 
fectly truthful, as well as kindly ; the fourth, right con- 
duct, pure, honest, peaceable ; the fifth, a right mode of 
gaining a livelihood, doing harm to no living thing ; and 
the sixth, right effort, self-control, self-training, embrace 
the sum of Buddhist morals. The seventh and eighth, 
mindfulness and contemplation, are again purely inward. 
The whole moral code may thus be expressed as upright- 
ness in word, deed, and thought ; but the great import- 
ance of wisdom as the crown of uprightness is fully 
expressed. 

A great portion of the Buddhist morality, however, 
was negative, made up of prohibitions. Five special 
Negative hindrances, veils, or entanglements are speci- 
moraiity. g e( j ? -which must be mastered, namely, lustful 
desire, malice, sloth, self-righteousness or pride, and doubt. 
Five main commands are often repeated. The Buddhist 
must (1) kill no living thing, (2) not steal, (3) live chastely, 
(4) speak no untruth, (5) not drink intoxicating drinks. 
Bat in the rules for the monks, we find such positive 
additions as the following : — u The cudgel and the sword 



BENEVOLENCE, 153 

he lays aside ; and full of modesty and pity, lie is com- 
passionate and kind to all creatures that have life. What 
he hears here, he repeats not elsewhere to raise a quarrel. 
. . . He lives as a binder-together of those who are 
divided, an encourager of those who are friends, a peace- 
maker, a lover of peace. . . . Whatever word is 
humane, pleasant to the ear, lovely, reaching to the heart, 
urbane, pleasing to the people, such are the words he 
speaks. . . . Putting away foolish talk, he abstains 
from vain conversation. In season he speaks ; he speaks 
that which is ; he speaks fact . . . that which re- 
dounds to profit, is well defined, and is full of wisdom. 
He refrains from injuring any herb or any creature. He 
takes but one meal a day. He abstains from dancing, 
singing, music and theatrical shows " (S. E. xi.). 

It cannot be said that the Christian virtue of love is 
taught by Buddhism. There is sometimes some approach 
to it, but it is not clear. The virtue enjoined 
by Buddhism is rather the extinction of hating 
than positive love. Thus, "He who holds back rising 
anger like a rolling chariot, him I call a real driver. 
. . . Let a man overcome anger by not becoming 
angry ; let a man overcome evil by good ; let him over- 
come the greedy by liberality, the liar by truth." " En- 
mity never comes to an end through enmity here below ; 
it comes to an end by non-enmity ; this has been the 
rule from all eternity.' 7 A notable story is found in the 
Mahavagga, which illustrates this last doctrine. But 
the benevolence which an early Buddhist felt was far 
removed from Christian benevolence. His body, which 
might be hurt by others, was not really himself ; so he 
felt no bitter resentment at anything clone to it. u Those 
who cause me pain and those who cause me joy, to all 
I am alike, and affection and hatred I know not. In joy 
or sorrow I remain unmoved; in honour and dishonour 
throughout I am alike." This benevolence was not a 
spontaneous sympathy rising in the good man's heart, 
but a result of meditation and intentional mental exercise ; 
and this benevolence, radiating from him, is said to exert 
a kind of magical influence, bringing about harmonious 



154 THE BUDDHIST DOCTRINES. 

relations between Buddhists and ail people and even 
animals. 

But what of beneficence, so highly esteemed in Chris- 
tianity ? To outward appearance, it was just as highly 
esteemed in early Buddhism ; but the forms of 
cence. ^ s exerc -[ se were different. From all that we 
can gather, poor people, in the sense of those wanting 
daily food or means to get it, were by no means abundant 
at that time in India ; and the higher modes of Christian 
beneficence w r ere not yet dreamt of. Joining the Buddhist 
order itself gave rise to the very practical step of renuncia- 
tion ; but in the case of those who were already married 
and had families it released the adherents from their 
family responsibilities and cares. This renunciation can 
scarcely be called beneficence, for it was not done in 
order that other persons might be benefited. Practically 
the chief beneficence exercised by Buddhists was by the 
lay adherents, who were expected to show liberality to 
all individual monks and to the Order generally. This 
beneficence was for the sake of their religious profession, 
however, and can hardly be called pure beneficence. And 
all through early Buddhism the special virtue of benefi- 
cence is overshadowed by the broader and deeper neces- 
sity for renouncing every worldly possession ; even lay 
adherents were not to count things their own, by which 
thev might confer on the Order needed benefits. In some 
of the narratives a little later than the earliest, the giving 
away of w T ife and children is represented as of no moment 
compared with winning the Buddhahood. "We see clearly 
that it was not by means of beneficence that the character 
advocated by Buddhism was to be acquired. 

That discipline was essentially internal. " Rouse thyself 

by thyself, examine thyself by thyself, . . . curb thy- 

seif-disci- self as the merchant curbs a good horse. ... 

piine. Cut off the five senses, leave the five, rise above 
the five. ... In the body restraint is good, good is 
restraint in speech, in thought restraint is good, good 
is restraint in all things " (S.E. x., Dhammapada). Every- 
thing is to be done with a self-conscious effort and watch- 
fulness. Self-examination is to be practised after every 



TEMPTATION, MARA. 155 

contact with tlie world, after every begging excursion ; 
and all emotions or desires, which are stigmatised as evil 
and treacherous, are to be suppressed. In no religion is 
it more sternly insisted on that the character is the 
inner self. "All that we are is the result of what we 
have thought; it is founded on our thoughts, it is made 
up of our thoughts, " says the first verse of the Dham- 
mapacla. 

Temptation to evil is associated with a personal spirit 
or essence called Mara, not believed to be the originator 
of evil and sorrow — for on that point Buddhism Temptation, 
had no belief — but the chief tempter to evil in Mara, 
thought, word, and deed. He, like Yama in the Brahman 
system, is Death or the King of Death, and so is king of 
all the pleasures of this world. The foundation of the 
Buddhist Order is a deadly blow at this kingdom, and 
consequently the Buddhists are objects of his continual 
attack. He offers Buddha himself the rule over the whole 
earth, if he will renounce his spiritual mission. He is 
tempted by Mara's daughters, Desire, Unrest, and Plea- 
sure, and resists their temptations. In all the narratives 
addressed to the people generally, Mara appears as a real 
personage, not everlasting, but capable of attacking every 
one. The higher Buddhist philosophy sees Mara in 
everything which is subject to change. " Wherever 
there is an eye and form, wherever there is an ear and 
sound, wherever there is thinking and thought, there is 
Mara, there is sorrow." (0.) But in the details relating 
to the tempter, as given by the Buddhist books, we find 
nothing grand, nothing great even in evil. The attacks 
made upon 'Buddha and his followers are comparatively 
simple, and are easily foiled. Buddha was, it is related, 
tempted with a kingdom in order that he might do what 
he asserted to be possible, "rule as a king in righteousness, 
without killing or causing to be killed, without practising 
oppression or permitting oppression to be practised, with- 
out suffering pain or inflicting pain on another," and he 
is tolcl that he could turn the Himalayas into gold if he 
chose. Buddha answers : " What would it profit a wise 
man if he possessed even a mountain of silver or of gold? 



156 THE BUDDHIST DOCTRINES. 

He wlio lias compreliended sorrow, whence it springs, 
how can he bend himself to desire ? He who knows that 
earthly existence is a fetter in this w^orld, let him practise 
that which sets him free therefrom.'' Then Mara, the 
Evil one, said, " The Exalted One knows me, the Perfect 
One knows me," and disconcerted and disheartened he 
rose and went away. Other narratives represent Mara 
as constantly watching the avenues of the senses that he 
may gain access to the mind ; and this continual siege 
is only to be met by continual watchfulness, which will 
at last make Mara give up the hopeless task. 

Dr. Oldenberg graphically describes the struggle be- 
tween the individual soul and the sorrow-producing chain 
The struggle °^ suffering, and the tempter Mara, as pictured 
and victory by the early Buddhists. " The struggle is 
of the soul. ne ither slight nor brief. From that moment 
forward, when first the conviction dawns upon a soul, that 
this battle must be fought, that there is a deliverance 
which can be gained — from that first beginning of the 
struggle up to the final victory, countless ages of the world 
pass away. Earth worlds and heavenly worlds, and worlds 
of hells also, pass aw r ay as they have arisen and passed 
aw r ay from all eternity. Gods and men, all animated 
beings, come and go, die and are born again, and amid 
this endless tide of all things, the beings who are seeking 
deliverance, now advancing and victorious, and anon 
driven back, press on to their goal. The path reaches 
beyond the range of the eye, but it has an end. After 
countless wanderings through worlds and ages the goal 
at last appears before the wanderer's gaze. And in his 
sense of victory there is mingled a feeling of pride for 
the victory won by his own power. The Buddhist has 
no god to thank, as he had previously no god to invoke 
during his struggle. The gods bow before him, not he 
before the gods."' 

The place of prayer in other religions is in Buddhism 

taken by abstraction, meditation, withdrawal as far as 

states of possible from the world of sense. How far this 

abstraction. m ay proceed by an artificial system we may 

see later. Some portions of the Buddhist scriptures 



THE PERSOX OF BUDDHA. 157 

describe methods of producing self-concentration; and 

frequently they approach pathological or morbid con- 
ditions. It is no wonder that hallucinations of the senses 
should arise in men who have torn themselves from every 
home tie, and devoted themselves to homelessness and 
abstraction. But heavenly visions, heavenly sounds, 
forms of supernatural beings are only rarely seen : rather 
the condition commonly attained was that known as 
clairvoyant, in which the spirit was believed to be 
peculiarly refined, pure, pliant, and firm. Then the 
monks imagined they saw the past clearly, even their 
own past existences, saw into the thoughts of others. 
acquired miraculous powers, became invisible and again 
appeared on earth. Many of these may be paralleled by 
various accounts in the Bible ; but there are no parallel 
results flowing from them. 

Among the monks 110 gradation was at first recognised 
except the higher order of those who had attained de- 
liverance : but later four grades were acknow- Tlie four 



leaded: (1) the lowest, those who had attained grades of 



the path, and were not liable to re-birth in the 
lower worlds 'hells, world of animals, spirit worlds); (2) 
those who return once only to this world — these have 
destroyed desire, hatred, and frivolity : (3) the non-return- 
ing, who only enter the higher worlds of the gods, and 
these attain Nirvana : (4 the Saints (Arhats). But these 
grades did not give those who had attained them any 
special place in the Order. 

A special grade was occupied by those who gained 
participation 111 the Buddhahood by their own inherent 
force, having won the knowledge bringing: deliverance 
by their own exertions. They were believed to have 
lived chiefly in the ages previous to Buddha himself: but 
they were not equal to the " universal Buddhas" of whom 
Gautama was one. 

The position claimed by and assigned to Buddha is 
peculiar in that he had no special commission from a 
supreme Being, and did not put himself for- The person 
ward as the representative of the invisible of Buddha. 
powers, He was simply, in the present order of things, 



158 THE BUDDHIST DOCTRINES. 

the first who had obtained universal Buddhahood. He 
taught to others the truths that he had himself discovered. 
He was their helper, but it was by their own effort and 
meditation that it could really be received by them. 
And yet the claims attributed to Buddha are nothing- 
less than omniscience and perfection. He says : "I have 
overcome all foes ; I am all-wise ; I am free from stains 
in every way ; I have left everything ; and have obtained 
emancipation by the destruction of desire. Having my- 
self gained knowledge, whom should I call my master? 
I have no teacher; no one is equal to me; in the world 
of men and of gods no being is like me. I am the Holy 
One in this world, I am the highest teacher, I alone 
am the perfect Buddha ; I have gained coolness by the 
extinction of all passion, and have obtained Nirvana." 
(Mahavagga, S.E. xiii.) u He appears in the world for 
salvation to many people, for joy to many people, out of 
compassion for the world, for the blessing, the salvation, 
the joy of gods and men." But Buddha is by no means 
represented as the sole person who has attained Budda-. 
hood. Many Buddhas had been before him and would 
come after him ; but they were supposed all to be born 
in Eastern India, and to be all of the Brahman or soldier 
(Kshatriya) castes ; and their teaching prevailed for 
longer or shorter periods, after which faith vanished 
for a time in the earth. Thus we see that Buddha was 
the starter of the new religious life, and essential to it ; 
but by no means a god, or a heaven-sent messenger. 

THE BUDDHIST SCRIPTURES. 

Those which are pre-eminently worthy of this designa- 
tion, as being the oldest and purest, are the Pali books 
preserved by the Ceylonese Buddhists. They are ar- 
ranged in three collections or " Baskets" (pitakas). The 
first, or Vinaya-pitaka, includes books containing regula- 
tions for the external life of the order of monks. The 
second, or Sutta-pitaka, contains a number of miscel- 
laneous works, each composed of suttas or short pithy 
sentences, some relating sayings of Buddha, others legends 
and stories of the preceding Buddhas. The third contains 



THE DHAMMAPADA. 159 

various disquisitions, an enumeration of the conditions 
of life, etc. 

The most interesting of all these, and the most deserv- 
ing of attention for its literary excellence, is the Dham- 
mapada, or Path of Virtue (or Footstep of the The Diiam- 
Law), from which we have already quoted, mapada. 
The word subsequently came to mean generally " a re- 
ligious sentence.'' Its date, like that of the rest of the 
scriptures, is stated by the Buddhists to be fixed b} T the 
first Council of the Church immediately after the death 
of Buddha ; what appears to be certain is that this book 
existed before Asoka's council, about B.C. 242, after which 
date it was introduced into Ceylon by Mahinda, Asoka's 
son. And we may take the Dhammapada as having 
been believed to have been personally uttered by Buddha. 
Even if he did not compose it (which there is nothing 
to prove positively), it was composed soon after his death, 
by some one or more persons whose genius rose as high 
as his. A point of great importance 111 judging of this 
whole canon is that it contains no mention of Asoka's 
council, but does mention the first and second councils 
(of Rajagaha and Vesali), and describes them at the end 
of the Kullavagga. 

AVe will now give some further extracts from the 
Dhammapada. to illustrate its literary character, apart 
from the special points we have already drawn attention 
to. Sometimes w r e find in it dogmatic teaching quite 
straightforwardly put, thus : " He who wishes to put on 
the yellow dress without having cleansed himself from 
sin, who disregards also temperance and truth, is un- 
worthy of the yellow dress." "By oneself the evil is 
done, by oneself one suffers ; by oneself evil is left undone, 
by oneself one is purified. Purity and impurity belong 
to oneself, no one can purify another." " That deed is 
not well done of which a man must repent, and the 
reward of which he receives gladly and cheerfully.'' 
" Do not speak harshly to anybody ; those who are spoken 
to w r ill answer thee in the same way." Here we have 
the Eastern representative of the Proverbs of Solomon. 

How much wisdom is to be found in the following * 



160 THE BUDDHIST DOCTRINES. 

" Let the wise man guard his thoughts, for they are very 
difficult to perceive, very artful, and they rush wherever 
the} 7 list.*' " The fool who knows his foolishness is wise, 
at least so far. But a fool who thinks himself wise, he 
is called a fool indeed." " One's own self conquered is 
better than all other people." Here is a condensed censure 
of asceticism : "Not nakedness, not platted hair, not dirt, 
not fasting, or lying on the earth, not rubbing with dust, 
not sitting motionless, can purify a mortal who has not 
overcome desires." 

The following is a varied selection of these gems. " Bad 
deeds, and deeds hurtful to ourselves, are easy to do ; 
what is beneficial and good, that is very difficult to do." 
"This world is dark, few only can see here; a few only 
go to heaven, like birds escaped from the net." " Health 
is the greatest of gifts, contentedness the best riches ; 
trust is the best of relationships, Nirvana the highest 
happiness." "If any thing is to be clone, let a man do 
it, let him attack it vigorously. A careless pilgrim only 
scatters the dust of his passions more widely." Similes 
of great aptness or beauty abound. "As the bee collects 
nectar and departs without injuring the flower, or its 
colour or scent, so let a sage dwell in his village." " Like 
a beautiful flower, full of colour, but without scent, are 
the fine but fruitless words of him who does not act 
accordingly." "There is no fire like passion, there is no 
shark like hatred, there is no snare like folly, there is 
no torrent like greed." " The fault of others is easily 
perceived, but that of oneself is difficult to perceive ; a 
man winnows his neighbour's faults like chaff, but his 
own fault he hides, as a cheat hides the bad die from 
the gambler." "If a fool be associated with a wise man 
even all his life, he will perceive the truth as little as a 
spoon perceives the taste of soup." 

It is natural to find in these pithy sayings the pervading 
truth of the universality of suffering and the vanity of 
life. " Before long, alas! this body will lie on the earth, 
despised, without understanding, like a useless log." 
"As a cowherd with his staff drives his cows into the 
stable, so do Age and Death drive the life of men." Old 



THE DHAMMAPADA. 161 

age is thus depicted : ' : Look at this dressed-up lump, 
covered with wounds, joined together, sickly, full of many 
thoughts, which has no strength, no hold. This body is 
wasted, full of sickness and frail ; this heap of corruption 
breaks to pieces, life indeed ends in death. " We are 
told to "look upon this world as a bubble, as a mirage. 7 ' 
But watchfulness and the true knowledge preserves a 
man in safety. One of the later sentences gives a fine 
picture of a stoic. " Him I call indeed a Brahman who, 
though he has committed no offence, endures reproach, 
bonds, and stripes, who has endurance for his force, and 
strength for his army." Indeed, the whole section on 
the true Brahman is fine : . he is tolerant with the in- 
tolerant, mild with faultfinders, free from passion among 
the passionate, is thoughtful, guileless, free from doubts, 
free from attachment, and content. 




M 




CASKET CONTAINING BUDDHA S TOOTH, IN THE TEMPLE 0? DALADA 
MALIGAWA, KANDY, CEYLON. 



CHAPTER VII. 



The Buddhist order— The Mahavagga— Fortnightly meeting's— Confession 
and penance— Strict regulations— Profession of faith— Not a body cor- 
porate—No head after Buddha— Assemblies or Councils— Limitations 
on admission— Form of reception— The four resources— The four pro- 
hibitions—Quitting the order— Its advantages— No silver or gold- 
Seemly outward appearance— Companionship— Tutelage— Recitations 
and discussions —Retirement and love of nature— Few ceremonies— 
Reverence and Buddha— Regard for holy places— The confessional— The 
Kullavagga— Offences and penances— The Pavarana or invitation— The 
nuns or sisters— The laity— Esoteric Buddhism— Karma. 

SOME attention must now be given to the great 
Order of mendicants or monks which perpetuated 
Buddha's influence and extended his teaching. Very 

162 



STRICT REGULATIONS. 163 

early in Baddlia's career they became an organised 
Brotherhood ; and a formal system of admission and 
rules of conduct were framed as need arose. At first 
candidates who professed belief in this doctrine were 
simply admitted by the great teacher, but it is a natural 
development that this should be delegated to others as 
the Order grew. The Mahavagga, one of the The 
oldest Pali books, contains the records of these Mahavagga. 
events, and of the regulations imposed on the Order, 
preceded by a narrative embodying many of the early 
events in Buddha's preaching, including not a few 
marvels and miracles. Soon it became customary to 
hold meetings of the Order twice a month, at Fortnightly 
the periods of full and new moon, already meetings, 
sacred periods in India, observed by Brahmans with 
ceremonies of long standing. The special purpose of 
these Buddhist meetings was the confession confession 
of faults one to another and the acceptance of and penance, 
the due penance. A list of common or possible offences 
was drawn up, and read out at each meeting, every 
member present being called upon to answer three times 
as to his innocence of each offence. Among these offences 
are some which show how strictly from the strict 
first Buddhist monks were regulated. Even regulations. 
in building a hut it must be of prescribed measurement ; 
no extra robes must be kept ; no rug or mat with silk in it 
must be used by a monk, and a rug must last six years ; 
spare bowls must not be possessed; no monk must en- 
croach on the hospitality already given to another ; no 
monk might take more than one meal at a public rest- 
house. 

The members of the Order had to go into the neigh- 
bourhood of houses completely clad, clean, with downcast 
eye, making but little noise, not swaying the limbs about 
wdth excited gestures. Their heads must be uncovered. 
Various observances are connected with taking the food 
given to them. They were not to preach the Buddhist 
doctrine to persons in unseemly attitudes, nor to any one 
sitting. 

After Buddha's death a different system of receiving 



1 64 THE BUDDHIST DOCTRINES. 

monks of course arose. The following is the profession 
of faith which early became prevalent : 

" To Buddha will I look in faith ; lie, the Exalted, is 

the holy, supreme Buddha, the knowing, the instructed, 

Profession of the blessed, who knows the worlds, the Su- 

faitn. preme One, who yoketh men like an ox, the 

Teacher of gods and men, the exalted Buddha. 

" To the doctrine w T ill I look in faith ; well preached is 
the doctrine by the Exalted One. It has become ap- 
parent ; it needs no time ; it says ■ Come and see ' ; it leads 
to welfare ; it is realised by the w r ise in their own hearts. 

" To the Order will I look in faith ; in right behaviour 
lives the Order of disciples of the Exalted One ; in proper, 
honest, just behaviour lives the Order of the disciples of 
the Exalted One, the four couples, the eight classes of 
believers ; that is the Order of the disciples of the Exalted 
One, worthy to have men lift their hands before them in 
reverence, the highest place in the world, in which man 
may do good. 

"In the precepts of rectitude will I walk, which the 
holy love, which are uninfringed, unviolated, unmixed., 
uncoloured, free, praised by the wise and not counterfeit, 
which lead on to concentration.' 7 

Although we have spoken of the Buddhist Order, some- 
what as if it were a body corporate, it never became 
Not a body strictly so. No central authority or represen- 
corporate. tatiye council was ever constituted ; no person 
was deputed by the founder of the religion to represent 
him after his death. And indeed mankind had not then 
arrived at the conception of a Pope, or a general authority 
No head after exercising sway through widely different and 

Buddha, separate regions. The only device that then 
occurred to the monks was to attribute every new regu- 
lation which they wished to enforce, to Buddha himself. 
He was the one person to whom authority was conceded ; 
and in so far as his authority was acknowledged, his 
Assemblies or supposed behests were likely to be obeyed. 

councils. The only other w^ay of imposing new regula- 
tions was by means of assemblies or councils of monks, 
but though sometimes spoken of as general councils as 



FORM OF RECEPTION. 165 

of a Church, they were only assemblies of monks at a 
particular centre at one time, not called from all Buddhist 
centres, and not representative. Probably the first of 
these, said to have been held at Rajagaha immediately 
after Buddha's death, included the most prominent and 
revered of his followers ; but there was no way of imposing 
its decisions on those who were not present, except by a 
purely intangible influence. The same was the case with 
the later councils. No doubt they were assembled because 
evils had arisen, or questions required decision. But the 
more Buddhism, spread, the more independent spirits 
entered its ranks, the more difficult was it to heal divi- 
sions or to prevent divergences of doctrine and practice 
from arising. And this went on, antagonised only by the 
cohesion produced by the sacred books, the devotion and 
reverence for Buddha, the greater or less consciousness 
of a common interest to advance and a common battle to 
fight. Hence it was that, as its founder predicted, Bud- 
dhism was destined to die in India, and to maintain itself 
in other countries in widely different forms from those 
in which it had originated. 

At first no limitations were imposed as to admission to 
the Order ; any applicant was received. But it was soon 
necessary to laj T clown certain rules of exclu- Limitations 
sion. Criminals, those afflicted with serious to 
deformities, soldiers and servants of kings, admissl0n - 
debtors and slaves, and sons whose parents refused their 
consent, were thus excluded. No youth might enter the 
first stage till twelve years old, or might be fully received 
as a monk till twenty. Two stages were marked, the 
preliminary reception or outgoing from lay life or from 
another sect of ascetics, and the complete entry (Upasam- 
pacla) into the Order. The latter was conferred Form of 
at a general meeting (Samgha) of monks in reception, 
any place, a resolution asking for it being proposed, and 
any one who objected being required to declare his 
objection. The petitioner was asked if he had certain 
diseases, if he was a freeman, if he had no debts, if he 
had a proper alms-bowl and robes, if his parents con- 
sented, if he was in the royal service, etc. He had 



1 66 THE BUDDHIST DOCTRINES. 

further to offer some experienced monk as his sponsor 

or teacher. He was then proposed for formal reception ; 

The four and if no monk objected, he was declared to 

resources. b e received. He was next formally told what 
were the four resources of the Order, (1) morsels of food 
given in alms, (2) a robe made of rags taken from a dust 
heap, (3) dwelling at the foot of a tree, (4) the filthiest 
liquid for medicine. All other food, drink, shelter, and 
clothing were to be regarded as extra allowances. After 
Taefour this, four great prohibitions were communi- 

pronibitions. cated : (1) the command to live a chaste life, 
(2) not to take even a blade of grass that had not been 
given to him, (3) not to take the life of even the minutest 
creature, (4) not to boast that he possessed any super- 
human perfection. Thus the whole reception was con- 
fined to declarations on the part of both the candidate 
and the assembly. Nothing like prayer, special initiation, 
or conferment of power was included. 

It followed that it was equally easy to leave the Order. 
This was a direct consequence of Buddha's teaching, 

Quitting the which was only open to those who voluntarily 
Order, received it. Perhaps no Order ever held its 
members so lightly ; and in this lay one of the secrets 
of its strength. The monks were bound to lead a very 
temperate life, but their subsistence was sure so long as 
the Order had any repute ; the thoughts to which they 
its were exhorted chimed in with their own natural 

advantages, prepossessions, and an undoubted position of 
respect and influence was occupied by every monk. Then 
again, while not coercing any one to stay (a monk might 
leave on simply declaring that he wished to return to 
relatives, or home, or a worldly life), the Order had a 
considerable hold on him by reason of the censure and 
the exclusion which it might pronounce. The breaking 
of any of the great prohibitions caused exclusion, provided 
any monk took notice of it and brought the case before 
an assembly. So the double mode : — forcible exclusion, 
and voluntary retirement — were in easy operation, and 
thus the Order, retaining only voluntary and well-behaved 
members, was strong. 



COMPANIONSHIP. 167 

In one thing Buddhist monks differed from many other 
Orders : they were strictly forbidden to accept or possess 
silver or gold, or even to treasure them for the no silver or 
Order. Thus they were kept far from " the £° ld - 
root of all evil." If a monk nevertheless accepted such 
a gift, he was compelled to hand it over to some lay 
adherent in the neighbourhood, who was to purchase 
with it butter, oil, or honey, for the use of the monks, 
the guilty receiver excepted. Or, again, the gold or silver 
might be cast away. Such a severe restriction was 
steadfastly maintained for centuries. 

Another distinction of the Buddhist monks from other 
Orders, in India and elsewhere, was in the seemliness of 
their outward appearance. Far from cultivat- seemly 
ing dirt or unseemliness in any form, they were outward 
scrupulously careful about bathing, the care of a PP earance - 
the body, ventilation, and other things conducive to 
health. Their garments, though they might be very 
poor, were to be seemly and decent, and it was not 
forbidden to accept a sufficiency of food and clothing 
from any lay adherent. The whole picture of the Bud- 
dhist monks of early times is a remarkable one in its 
preservation of the medium between asceticism and 
excess, a resolute choice which has no doubt preserved 
it from the extremes of Hindu asceticism, though it has 
not always kept it equally free from excesses of other 
kinds. Shelter was always obtainable and allowable, and 
even comfortable quarters were not disdained. Every- 
thing was, as far as known, conducted on sanitary prin- 
ciples, in many points reminding us of the domestic 
legislation of the Jews. The seniors and teachers were 
especially revered and well attended to, their pupils and 
the novices who were their proteges being ex- companion- 
pected to travel ahead of them and prepare sM P- 
quarters for them when on their journeys, and to do 
every kindly office for them. Solitude, in fact, was dis- 
couraged. "We everywhere hear of groups of monks 
residing together, helping one another in difficulties, sick- 
ness, or temptation, and looking after one another's 
spiritual welfare. For five years after his admission to 



1 68 THE BUDDHIST DOCTRINES. 

the Order each monk had to be under the tutelage of 
two monks of ten years' standing whom he 
age. was £ o accom p arL y an( j attend upon, and from 
whom he was to receive instruction. Where many 
monks resided together, offices became somewhat sub- 
divided, but only in relation to domestic matters ; thus 
different individuals were charged with the distribution 
of fruit, of rice, the care of the sleeping and assembly 
rooms, etc. 

It is noteworthy how little importance the Buddhist 
monks attached to labour apart from absolute necessities. 

Recitations Like the strict Brahmans, to whom the recita- 
and tion of the Vedas was all-important, the monks 

discussions. re g arc [ ec [ the repetition of Buddha's sayings and 
discourses and the rules of the Order as essential. But 
this w T as varied with discussions on points of. difficulty 
or the fuller exposition of the leading doctrines : " He 
who abides in the Order talks not of many topics and 
talks not of vulgar things. He expounds the word him- 
self, or stirs up another to its exposition, or he esteems 
even sacred silence not lightly." (0.) On the whole we 
have a picture of an Order living in the world, yet not 
of the world, almost daily contemplating the turmoil and 
distractions of a suffering, changeful life, yet never taking 
part in its affairs ; a standing witness to self-seeking, 
quarrelling people that something existed far better than 
their life, that passions could be quelled, that there was 

Retirement a ^ e which gave relief from sorrows and pro- 

and love of cluced a philosophic calm. Perhaps in this life 
nature. ^ there was more pure love of nature than 
was alwaj^s acknowledged ; and the rule as to sparing 
life was certainly in accord with this. Some of their 
poets have beautifully expressed this love of nature. 
fc ' The broad heart-cheering expanses, crowned by Jcareri 
forests, those lovely regions, where elephants raise their 
voices, the rocks make me glad. Where the rain rushes, 
those lovely abodes, the mountains where sages walk, 
where the peacock's cry resounds, the rocks, make me 
glad. There is it good for me to be, the friend of 
abstraction, who is struggling for salvation. There is it 



REGARD FOR HOLY PLACES. 169 

good for me to be. the monk, who pursues the true good, 
who is struggling for salvation." (0.) 

The fortnightly meetings already referred to (p. 163) 
were almost the only regular assemblies of Buddhists, 
and confession and questioning of one another Few 
was almost the only religious form. We must ceremonies. 
constantly keep in mind the burdensome and expensive 
nature of the Brahman observances, and likewise the 
authority which the Br airmails claimed over all kinds of 
concerns of other people. Thus the contrast to the latter 
was very evident in Buddhism : little ceremony, retired 
life, modest demeanour, pure living, no profession of 
supernatural power, no assumption of authority. Herein 
was a great part of its strength. It is surely one of the 
most remarkable phenomena in the world that a religion 
— if it can be truly called a religion, — which professes 
no knowledge and inculcates no worship of a god, and 
which is not bound in reverence to a super- Reverence to 
natural Person, should have obtained sway over Buddha, 
one-third of the population of the globe. Buddha, it is 
true, is ever held in reverence, but he is not believed 
in as existing ; he is in Nirvana, but whether Nirvana 
is a state of present existence or not is doubtful, and thus 
there is no prayer to Buddha, no answer to prayer by 
Buddha ; yet his memory is fresh, his name is sanctified, 
his teaching is influential as ever. 

The only thing in early Buddhism approaching the 
pilgrimages and acts of worship in other religions, is the 
holding in reverence of the four notable places Regard for 
in Buddha's life : his birthplace, the spot where holy places, 
he attained knowledge and perfect insight, the place 
where he started the kingdom of righteousness, and the 
place of his death. Those who died while journeying to 
these places were promised that their re-birth should be 
in heaven. The care of Buddha's relics, the building of 
monuments to contain them, and the holding of festivals 
in their honour were entirely left to lay members. 

Perhaps the institution most nearly parallel with the 
Buddhist assemblies is the class-meeting among the 
Methodists as instituted bv John Wesley. The ;i leader : ' 



lyo 



THE BUDDHIST DOCTRINES. 



of the meeting was tlie monk of longest standing in the 
The district, and every member of the Order was 
confessional, to be present, even if ill, unless he were able 
to send by another monk his assurance of freedom from 
the faults which the sacred form (Pattimokkha, the words 




WORSHIPPERS BEFORE THE ENTRANCE TO THE SHRINE OF THE TOOTH, CEYLON. 

of disburdenment) inquired into. No woman, no lay 
member, no novice, might take part in or be present at 
this solemnity. Three times every question must be put, 
and silence was an assertion of purity. In later times 
it was held necessary that every monk should have 
previously confessed his fault and clone the appropriate 



THE PA VARAN A OR INVITATION. 171 

penance (unless it were one for which exclusion was the 
punishment) : and it was the duty of any brother who 
knew of an offence committed by another to demand his 
confession and performance of penance. 

A full procedure (contained in the Kullavagga) gra- 
dually grew up to meet all cases of transgression. Bud- 
dhist monks, like other human beings, proved The 
themselves liable to err, and we find recitals KuUavagga. 
such as this at the beginning of various sections of the 
Kullavagga : " Now at that time the venerable Seyyasaka 
was stupid, and indiscreet, and full of faults, and devoid 
of merit, and was living in \&y society in unlawful 
association with the world, so much so that the monks 
were worn out with placing him on probation and with 
throwing him back to the beginning of his probationary 
term," etc. (S. E. xvii.). The various narrations show that 
some monks at times were guilty of almost offences and 
every kind of offence or frivolity, and so regu- penances, 
lations for warning, punishing, or excluding them were 
devised. If an individual, even a lay person, had been 
offended or put down, his pardon had to be asked. Sus- 
pension was the punishment for not acknowledging and 
not atoning for an offence. How severe this "cutting" 
could be, is shown by the following recital: "And the 
monks did no reverence to him, rose not from their seats 
to welcome him, rendered him not service, offered him 
not salutation, paid not respect to him, offered him not 
hospitality, nor esteemed him, nor honoured him, nor 
supported him." The various penances and forms con- 
nected with them are too numerous for us to attempt a 
further account of them. 

One other simple annual ceremony there was, known 
as the Pavarana or invitation. At the end of the rainy 
season, before commencing the season of itin- The Pavarana 
erancy, the monks met in assembly, each or invitation, 
sitting down on the ground, raising his clasped hands, 
and inviting his brethren to charge him with any offence 
he might be suspected of, promising, if he had been 
guilty, to make atonement. If any monk happened to be 
isolated, he could hold this service by himself, 



172 THE BUDDHIST DOCTRINES. 

Thus utterly devoid of show, of stately formality, of 
imposing accompaniments, was Buddhism ; priestless, 
templeless, agnostic as to the Supreme Being, its un- 
deniable power and influence drew to it multitudes of 
adherents ; and they were not all sound or docile fish 
that came to the net. Hence we early hear of dissensions 
in the Order, and whole chapters in the sacred books are 
devoted to their consideration. There are procedures for 
settling disputes, for dealing with charges against the 
innocent, the insane, etc. ; and when peaceable reconcilia- 
tion proved impossible, matters were to be decided by a 
vote of the majority, unless the subject was too trivial, or 
a vote would lead to an open schism. 

The "nuns," or "sisters," of Buddhism were regarded 
as constituting a separate Order, with their own fort- 
The nuns, or nightly assemblies, yet in complete subordina- 

sisters. ^ on fc the monks, so that none of the higher 
ceremonies were complete without the co-operation of 
monks. Every sister had to bow reverently, rise, and 
raise her clasped hands before every monk, however 
newly admitted. Both the confession meetings and the 
preaching of the true Buddhist doctrine had to be con- 
ducted for them by the monks ; and the nuns, after 
having held their own annual meeting, had to send to 
the corresponding meeting of monks asking them if they 
had any fault to reprehend in them. They were for- 
bidden to revile or scold monks, or to accuse them. 
Ordination of the sisters, penances for transgressions, 
settlement of disputes, all had to be performed or ar- 
ranged by the monks. Every fortnight the sisterhood 
had to obtain audience of a monk who had been appointed 
by his assembly to instruct and admonish them ; but he 
was strictly forbidden to enter their abode, or to journey 
or have any intimate companionship with them. No 
sister might live alone, or in a forest ; they lived within 
the walls of towns and villages, and never seem to have 
been at all comparable in numbers or influence to the 
monks. Indeed, it would have been against the spirit 
of the Buddhist system that they should be so ; for it 
could only exist by the keeping up of family life, the 



THE LAITY. 173 

provision of food and dwelling-places, which could not 
be continued if women made a practice of living in nun- 
like separation. 

The relations between the Order and the laity were 
unlike those of almost every other church. Lay believers 
must have been very numerous, to admit of mi , . 
the support of such large numbers of monks, 
and the extensive dedication of parks and buildings to 
their use ; but the monks never thought it necessary to 
institute a formal method of admitting lay adherents, nor 
to keep a roll of them. Practically in each district the 
followers of Buddha were well known, and it was not 
desirable to exclude any one from the class of givers 
without some potent reason. It was usual, however, for 
a declaration to be made to a monk by believers, that 
they took refuge in Buddha, in the Doctrine, and in the 
Order ; but a monk might recognise a beneficent person 
as a lay believer before such profession. Instruction in 
the doctrines of Buddha would be readily given to any 
person who offered hospitality to the monks, and as readily 
withdrawn from any one who maligned or insulted them. 
A serious offence was visited by withdrawal of the alms- 
bowl, and refusal of hospitality ; but such mild excom- 
munication would probably be quite in accordance with 
the desire of any one who could speak ill of the Order. 
The monks showed considerable readiness to re-aclmit 
any one who apologised for his fault and became recon- 
ciled to them. Beyond this they did not greatly concern 
themselves with the private life of the laity. Their true 
church consisted of the Order ; the rest of mankind was 
scarcely within measurable distance of bliss. And their 
moral state was but faintly cared for. It is true that 
an eightfold abstinence was enjoined on them, including 
abstinence from killing animals, stealing, lying, drinking 
intoxicating liquors, unchastity, eating after mid-day, and 
from perfumes and garlands ; and they must sleep on 
hard beds on the ground. General meetings of believers 
do not seem to have been held, nor were they admitted 
to meetings of the monks. But praises and promises of 
bliss were freely bestowed after this fashion: " To give 



i 7 4 THE BUDDHIST DOCTRINES. 

houses to the Order, wherein in safety and in peace to 
meditate and think at ease, the Buddha calls the best 
of gifts. Therefore let a wise man, who understands 
what is best for himself, build beautiful houses, and 
receive into them knowers of the doctrine. Let him 
with cheerful mind give food to them, and drink, raiment 
and dwelling-places, to the upright in heart. Then shall 
they preach to him the doctrine which drives away all 
suffering ; if he apprehends that doctrine here below, he 
goes sinless into Nirvana. " Naturally there was some- 
times a tendency for monks to exact too much, and the 
sacred books exhibit a stern repression of such practices, 
together with considerable sensitiveness as to the opinion 
of the lay-believers. 

We may here briefly refer to the modern doctrine 
termed " Esoteric Buddhism,'' which finds favour with 

Esoteric some persons in our own land. In the Book 
BuddHism. f the Great Decease, Buddha expressly dis- 
claims any secret doctrine of this kind. Modern Esoteric 
Buddhism should rather be called a form of Theosophy, 
which takes hold of some points in Buddhism, especially 
that of transmigration or reincarnation, and expresses 
the belief that souls become reincarnated in successive 
bodies, without remembering what took place in a pre- 
vious state of existence ; the successive lives being sepa- 
rated from one another by " intervals of spiritual con- 
sciousness on a plane of nature wholly imperceptible to 
ordinary senses." During this stage, the lower passions 
of earth are forgotten and the higher alone enjoyed ; and 
the vividness of this joy will depend on the impulse and 
intensity of previous upward aspirations. Reincarnation, 
when this impulse is exhausted, provides an appropriate 
punishment for ordinary evil doing. 

The word " karma," or " doing,'' is very important in 
Esoteric Buddhism : it is explained as the law of cause 
and effect in the moral world. It determines, 
according to fixed consequences, the state and 
condition in which reincarnations take place ; on earth 
good karma may be laid up, and bad karma worked out 
by suffering. (See A. P. Sinnett, " Esoteric Buddhism.") 




BU11MESE BUDDHIST PRIEST AND PUPILS 



CHAPTER VIII. 
ittotimt 35utitil)fsm. 5. 

Missionary religions— Buddhism many-sided— The first Buddhist councils- 
King Asoka— The third council— Asoka's edicts— Divergence of branches 
—The fourth (Kanishka's) council— Fa-hien— Siladitya's council— His 
good deeds— Huen-Siang— Decline of Indian Buddhism— Its causes— The 
Greater and the Lesser Vehicles— Wide range of Buddhism— Number 
of Buddhists— Singhalese Buddhism— Gradual modification— Images of 
Buddha— Viharas in Ceylon— Cave temples— Worship of the laity— Wor- 
ship of the Bo-tree— Dagobas— Relics of Buddha— Impressions of Buddha's 
foot— Vassa and public readings— The Pirit ceremony — Buddhist monks 
in Ceylon— Schools— Services of monks in illness— Burmese Buddhism- 
Burmese monastery schools— Novices— A Burmese monastery— The Phon- 
gyees— Life of a monk— Monastery buildings— Burmese pagodas— The 
great Rangoon temple— Pagahn— Burmese worship— Images of Buddha— 
Pagoda feasts— Nat worship— Animism— Funerals of laity— Funerals of 
monks— Siamese Buddhism— Siamese temples— Newborn children— Re- 
formed sects in Siam. 

S a missionary religion, Buddhism 1 is only comparable 
with Mahometanism and Christianity. No other 

1 See Spence Hardy's "Eastern Monachism " and "Manual of Bud- 
dhism " ; Sir Monier-Williams's " Buddhism "; " The Burman," by Shway 
Yoe (Mr. Scott), (B.) ; Alabaster's "Wheel of the Law." 

175 



A : 



176 MODERN BUDDHISM. 

religions have set themselves to conquer many races 
Missionary outside their original home : no others have 

religions, achieved so much peacefully. Hinduism pro- 
fessedly restricts itself to the Hindus, though it has dis- 
played great powers of absorbing aboriginal races into 
itself. Buddhism, Mahometanism, and Christianity are 
for all people who will receive them ; and their followers 
have proved their faith by their missionary efforts. 

Sir Momer- Williams, in his recent work on Buddhism, 
well expresses the great variety of aspects under which 

Buddhism it is necessary to study Buddhism. In various 
many-sided, countries and periods, "its teaching has become 
both negative and positive, agnostic and gnostic. It 
passes from apparent atheism and materialism to theism, 
polytheism, and spiritualism. It is, under one aspect, 
mere pessimism ; under another, pure philanthropy ; 
under another, monastic communism ; under another, 
high morality ; under another, a variety of materialistic 
philosophy ; under another, simple clemonology ; under 
another, a mere farrago of superstitions, including necro- 
mancy, witchcraft, idolatry, and fetishism. In some form 
or other it may be held with almost any religion, and 
embraces something from almost every creed. 7 ' 

At the first Buddhist Council, held at Rajagriha, after 
the death of Gautama, the teachings of the Enlightened 

The first ^ ne were sung in three divisions, namely, the 

Buddhist Sutras, or Suttas, or words of Buddha to his 

councils. ^i se ipl es - the Vinaya, or discipline of the Order; 
and the Dharma, or doctrine ; forming. together the Tripi- 
takas, or three baskets or collections. A hundred years 
later, a second council, held at Vesali, condemned the 
system of indulgences which had arisen, and led to the 
splitting of Buddhism into two parties, who afterwards 
gave rise to as many as eighteen sects. But these con- 
troversies did not hinder the spread of Buddhism in 
Northern India. About the middle of the third 
KingAsoka. century B c ? Asoka, the king of Magadha, or 
Behar, grandson of Chanclragupta (Greek Sandrokottos), 
founder of the kingdom, and noted for his connexion 
with Alexander the Great and Seleucus, became a sort 



THE FOURTH {KANISHKA'S) COUNCIL. 177 

of second founder of Buddhism. He founded so many 
monasteries that his kingdom received the name of Land 
of the Monasteries (Vihara or Behar). He made it the 
religion of the State, and held at Patna the Tne third 
third Buddhist council in 244 B.C., which recti- council, 
tied the doctrines and canon of Buddhism. Asoka subse- 
quently did much to spread the Order by sending out 
missionaries ; and he inculcated its principles by having 
them cut upon rocks and pillars, and in caves, through 
a wide extent of India. A number of these still exist. 
The form which the Buddhist scriptures took under his 
influence, in the dialect of his time and country, has been 
the basis of the manuscripts preserved in Ceylon, in what 
is now known as the Pali language. In every way Asoka 
showed himself to be one of the most enlightened of 
religious monarchs : and he in no way sought to make 
his views triumph bj T force. His missionaries were 
directed to mingle equally with all ranks of Asoka's 
unbelievers, and to •'teach better things. ?? His edicts, 
edicts include the prohibition of the slaughter of animals 
for food or sacrifice, the statement of the happiness to be 
found in virtue and the contrast of the transitory gloiy 
of this world with the reward beyond it, the inculcation 
of the doctrine that the teaching of Buddhist doctrine and 
virtue to others constitutes the greatest of charitable gifts, 
an order for the provision of medical aid for men and 
animals, the appointment of guardians of morality, etc. 

From the time of Asoka we may date the divergence 
of Buddhism into its varied national forms ; henceforth 
it is only possible to treat the subject either by Divergence 
the comparative method or by referring in turn of branches, 
to the development of each main branch. Space will 
only permit us to treat each very briefly. The fourth 
great Buddhist council, held under Kanishka, ^^ f 0VLTth 
who reigned from Kashmir widely over north- (Kanisnka's) 
western India, in the first century a.d., drew counciL 
up three commentaries on Buddhism, which were the 
basis for the Tibetan scriptures. This council indicates 
that Buddhism was firmly and widely established in 
India, and up to at least a.d. SCO it continued widely 



178 MODERN BUDDHISM, 

prevalent there, though Brahmanism was never sup- 
pressed, and in fact it was gradually absorbing many 
Buddhist ideas, and preparing, when that operation was 
completed, to take its place entirely. In the beginning 
of the fifth century a.d., Fa-hien, a Chinese 
' Buddhist, visiting India, found Buddhist monks 
and Brahman priests equally honoured, and Buddhist 
religious houses side by side with Hindu temples. In the 
seventh century the Buddhists were being outnumbered 
by the Hindus, although there were still powerful Bud- 
dhist monarchs and states in India. At this period 
suaditya's Siladitya appears as a great patron-king, who 

council. i n 634 l ie ld another great council at Kanauj 
on the Ganges ; but the progress of Brahmanism was 
manifest in the discussions which took place at this 
council between Buddhists and Brahmans, and by the 
worship of the sun god and of Siva on days succeeding 
the inauguration of a statue of Buddha. The divergences 
among followers of Buddha were seen in the disputes 
which took place between the advocates of the Northern 
and the Southern Canons, or the greater and lesser 

His good " Vehicles' 7 of the law. Siladitya was further 

deeds. notable for his public distribution of his trea- 
sures and jewels every five years, after which he put on 
a beggar's rags ; thus he celebrated Buddha's Great Re- 
nunciation. Near Gaya he supported the vast monastery 
of Naluncla, where it is said that ten thousand Buddhist 
monks and novices pursued their studies and devotions ; 
but Gaya was already a great centre of Hinduism. Huen- 
Siang, who travelled from China through India 
iang. ^ £k e seventh century, found Brahmanism 
gaining ground, though Buddhism still flourished in 
Southern India. Some of the Hindu reformers persecuted 
Decline of ^, as already related. It was still compara- 

indian tively strong in Orissa and Kashmir in the 
Buddhism, eleventh century, and Magadha continued Budd- 
hist until the Mohammedan conquest at the end of the 
twelfth century. After that, Buddhism was practically 
extinct in India. 

Why was this ? Partly because, as we have already 



THE GREATER AND THE LESSER VEHICLES. 179 

pointed out, Hinduism seized upon the more valuable 
doctrines of Buddhism, and combined them 
with the stronger and more popular elements s causej 
of its own faith and ritual. Buddhism, too, did not set 
itself to extinguish Brahmanism ; that would have been 
contrary to its principles ; and its composure and ex- 
tinction of desires was not calculated to put down any 
active opposition. Moreover, the Buddhists' celibacy con- 
tradicted one of the great instincts of humanity ; and 
we must allow for the full effect of their ignoring the 
existence of God, of their denial of revelation, and of the 
efficacy of prayer and priesthood. Again, and perhaps 
chiefly, Buddhism left too little for the lay adherent to 
do. Those only were true Buddhists who became monks ; 
the Church outside was not defined ; almost its only 
privilege was to wait on and feed the monks ; conse- 
quently, Vishnuism and Sivaism, in which the people 
had a most important part to play, most special ends to 
gain, and a most vital interest, conquered the affections 
and devotion of the masses of India. 

It is in Ceylon, Burmah, and Siam that the nearest 
resemblance to primitive Buddhism is to be found at 
the present day. These countries adhere to The Greater 
the canon of scriptures, as given in preceding and the Lesser 
chapters, called by the Northern Buddhists the Venicles - 
" Lesser Vehicle/ 7 in depreciation. Mahinda, the son of 
king Asoka, was the great apostle of Buddhism in Ceylon ; 
and now it has a history of over two thousand years. The 
canon was first translated into Singhalese and then trans- 
lated back into Pali by Buddaghosa in the fifth century, 
since which the texts have remained practically unchanged 
in Pali, not very different from the language of Asoka's 
day and kingdom. They have been translated into 
modern Singhalese, and commented upon at great length. 

The council held by Kanishka was the starting-point 
of the Northern Canon, often called the " Greater Vehicle" 
(Mahayana), written in Sanskrit. There are nine princi- 
pal books of these scriptures, of which the best known are 
the "Lotus of the true Law," and the "Legendary Life 
of Buddha." All of them were translated into Tibetan; 



i So MODERN BUDDHISM. 

and a large number of commentaries upon them were 
written. It is upon this "Greater Vehicle" that the 
Buddhism of Nepaul, Tibet, China, Manchuria, Mongolia, 
and Japan is founded ; but these all differ considerably 
Wide range from one another. Extending over so wide 
of Buddhism. an( j so populous an area of the earth's surface, 
Buddhism has been described as being the religion pro- 
fessed by more persons than any other, and has sometimes 
been credited with five hundred millions of adherents. 
The mistake that is made in such a calculation is evident 
when we remember that in China, where the greatest 
number of nominal Buddhists exists, a vast proportion 
of the population profess Confucianism, Taoism, and 
Buddhism equally or indifferently ; and the study of our 
chapters on the former will have shown how deep a hold 
Confucianism, ancestor worship, and the varied forms of 
Number of Taoism, have upon the Chinese. If they were 
Buddhists, called upon to exclude one of their religions, 
it is almost certain that Buddhism would be excluded. 
It is very doubtful if it is proper to reckon so many as 
a hundred millions of Chinese as Buddhists. Again, we 
have seen that Shintoism prevails in Japan, where, never- 
theless, many people generally show some adhesion to 
Buddhism. Buddhism, essentially, has no lay standard 
of adherence, since the true Buddhists are the monks 
only. Sir Monier- Williams reckons the number of Bud- 
dhists at one hundred millions ; Dr. Happer, an ex- 
perienced American missionary in China, estimates that 
there are only twenty millions of real Buddhist believers 
in China, and a total of seventy-two and a half millions 
in Asia. But it is a very doubtful thing to attempt to 
reckon the numbers of adherents of a religion, and 
especially such a religion as Buddhism. It is certainly 
one of the four most prevalent religions in the world. 

SINGHALESE BUDDHISM. 

Great indeed is the contrast between modern Buddhism, 

Gradual with its elaborate organisation, its wealthy 

modification, monasteries, its considerable ritual, its image 

worship and deifications, and the simplicity of its early 



VI HARAS IN CEYLON. 



1S1 



state as we have sketched it. No doubt this has come 
to pass by a gradual process of adaptation to those 
instincts and desires of the masses of the people which 
have compelled recognition in all quarters of the globe 
and in almost all religions, together with the regard 
which grew around Gautama as a perfect man ; and from 
the first, great importance seems to have been attached 
to his relics. Yet it was long before images of images of 
him came into general use. In Ceylon these Buddha, 
are called " Pilamas," meaning counterpart or likeness 




A BURMESE FUNERAL PROCESSION. 



They had become numerous in the third, fourth, and fifth 
centuries a.d., some being over twenty feet high and 
resplendent with jewels. " The viharas in vmaras in 
which the images are deposited," says Spence Ceylon. 
Hardy, " are generally, in Ceylon, permanent erections, 
the walls being plastered and the roof covered with tiles, 
even when the dwellings of the priests are mean and 
temporary. Near the entrance are frequently seen four 
figures in relief, representing the guardians and champions 
of the temple. Surrounding the sanctum there is usually 



1 82 MODERN BUDDHISM. 

a narrow room, in which are images and paintings ; but 
in many instances it is dark. Opposite the door of 
entrance there is another door, protected by a screen, 
and when this is withdrawn, an image of Buddha is 
seen, occupying nearly the whole of the apartment, with 
a table or altar before it, upon which flowers are placed. 
Like the temples of the Greeks, the walls are covered 
with paintings ; the style at present adopted in Ceylon 
greatly resembling, in its general appearance, that which 
is presented in the tombs and temples of Egypt. The 
story most commonly illustrates some passages in the life 
of Buddha, or in the births he received as Bodhi-sat. 
The viharas are not unfrequently built upon rocks or in 
other romantic situations. The court around is planted 
with the trees that bear the flowers most usually offered. 
Some of the most celebrated viharas are caves, in part 
natural, with excavations carried further into the rock. 
The images of Buddha are sometimes recumbent, at other 
times upright, or in a sitting posture, either in the act 
of contemplation, or with the hand uplifted in the act of 
giving instruction. At Cotta, near Colombo, there is a 
recumbent image forty- two feet in length. Upon the 
altar, in addition to the flowers, there are frequently 
smaller images either of marble or metal. In the shape 
of the images, each nation appears to have adopted its 
own style of beauty, those of Ceylon resembling a well- 
proportioned native of the island, whilst those of China 
present an appearance of obesity that would be regarded 
as anything but divine by a Hindu. The images made 
in Siam are of a more attenuated figure, and comport 
better with our idea of the ascetic.' 7 

The cave temple at Damballa is one of the most perfect. 
One of its halls contains a gigantic recumbent figure of 
Bucldha in the solid rock forty-seven feet long ; 
emp es. ^ ^ g ^^ stands an attendant, and opposite 
to the face is a statue of Vishnu, who is supposed to have 
assisted at the building ; another has more than fifty 
figures of Buddha, and statues of several Brahmanic 
devas, Vishnu, Natha, etc. There is a handsome dagoba 
in this vihara, the spire nearly touching the roof. The 



WORSHIP OF THE LAITY. 133 

whole interior — rock, wall, and statues — is painted in 
brilliant colours, yellow predominating. These, and other 
cave temples in Ceylon show that they were constructed 
through the same impulse and in the same art epoch 
with those at Ajunta and Ellora. No recent vihara of 
importance has been erected in Ceylon. 

The laity, on entering a vihara, bend the body or 
prostrate themselves before the image of Buddha with 
palms touching each other and thumbs touch- worship of 
ing the forehead. They next repeat the three- the lait y- 
fold formula of taking refuge, or they take upon them- 
selves a certain number of the ten obligations. Some 
flowers and a little rice are then placed upon the altar, 
and a few coppers are cast into a vessel. No form of 
prayer is used, and to all appearance there is no feeling 
concerned in the worship, wmich is a matter of course and 
convention, with a desire of gaining some boon. Buddha, 
the Doctrine, and the Order, appear in Ceylon to be 
almost co-equally invoked for protection. The protection 
of Buddha is to be obtained by listening to the scriptures 
or keeping the precepts, and thus the evil consequences 
of demerit are overcome. The protection of the Order 
is gained by a small gift. The protection of the three 
takes away the fear of successive existences, mental fear, 
bodily pain, and the misery of the four hells. Buddha 
will not protect one who refrains from worship when near 
a dagoba or other sacred place, or covers himself with his 
garment, an umbrella, etc., when in sight of an image 
of Buddha. The Doctrine will not protect one who 
refuses to listen to the reading of the scriptures when 
called upon, or who listens irreverently or does not keep 
the precepts. The Order will not protect one who sits 
near a priest without permission, who reads the precepts 
without being appointed, or argues against a priest, or 
has his shoulders covered or holds an umbrella up when 
near a priest, or who remains seated when riding in any 
vehicle near a priest. Many notable legends attest the 
importance of these statements. 

The worship of the Bo-tree (Pipul. or sacred fig") under 
which Gautama was accustomed to sit is no doubt very 



1 84 MODERN BUDDHISM. 

ancient, and in tlie court-yard of most viharas in Ceylon 
Worship of there is one, said to be derived from the 
the Bo-tree, original one brought to the island in the fourth 
century B.C. Usually one was planted on the mound 
under which the ashes of Kandyan chiefs and priests 
were placed. 

The clagoba next claims attention, but this word ap- 
pears in another guise, as " pagoda " ; it is derived from 
" da," an osseous relic, and "geba," the womb, 

ago as. mean i n g -Q ie shrine of an osseous relic. The 
word " tope," otherwise " stupa," a relic, is used for the 
same buildings. It is a circular building of stone, built 
on a natural or artificial elevation, and its summit is 
crowned with a hemispherical cupola, formerly terminated 
by spires. One of the great clagobas in Ceylon, at Anuracl- 
hapura, was originally 405 feet high, but is now not more 
than 230 feet ; another, formerly 31B feet, is now not 
more than 269 feet. All are built of brick and covered 
with a preparation of lime, of a pure white, and capable 
of high polish, so that when perfect the building resem- 
bled a crystal dome. At various periods in modern times 
these dagobas have been opened. One, opened in 1820 
in Ceylon, contained in the interior a small square com- 
partment of brickwork, set exactly towards the cardinal 
points. In the centre, directly under the apex, was a 
hollow stone vase with a cover, containing a small piece 

Relics of of bone, with some thin pieces of plate-gold, a 

Buddha. f ew rings, pearls, and beads, a few clay images 
of the sacred naga, or snake-god, and two lamps. Such 
relics are either supposed to have been those of Buddha 
himself or of some Buddhist saint, and many miracles 
are ascribed to their virtues. The most celebrated relic 
of Buddha now existing is in Ceylon, namely, the dalada, 
or left canine tooth, a piece of discoloured ivory two 
inches long (much too long for a human tooth). This 
is preserved in a small chamber in the vihara attached 
to the old palace of the Kandyan kings, enclosed in nine 
successive bell-shaped golden and jewelled cases, each 
locked, and the key kept by a separate official. On the 
walls of the corridor- of entrance are coloured frescoes of 



VASSA AXD PUBLIC READINGS. 1S5 

the eight principal hells of Buddhism, in whicli evildoers 
are represented being torn asunder by red-hot tongs, or 
sawn in two, or crushed between rocks, or fixed 011 red- 
hot spikes. Thus does the spirit of gentle Buddhism find 
place for practical threats of horrible torture. 

Xext to the relics in regard are impressions of Bud- 
dha's foot. The most celebrated is on Adam's Peak in 
Ceylon, annually visited by 100,000 pilgrims. i mpr e S3 ions 
It is a depression or excavation over five feet of Buddha's 
long, and three-quarters of a yard wide. Re- f00t 
presentations of it are divided into 108 compartments, 
each containing a design or figure, with a wheel in the 
centre. 

The Yassa, or residence in a fixed abode during the 
rainy season, celebrated by reading the Buddhist scrip- 
tures to the people, is well kept up in Ceylon, vassa ana 
The reading takes place in a temporary build- public 
ing of pyramidal form, with successive plat- readmg ' s - 
forms, built near a vihara. In the centre is an elevated 
platform for the monks, and the people sit around on 
mats. Lamps and lanterns of great variety and gay 
colour are held by the people in their hands or on their 
heads during the reading. Sometimes the scene is a 
very attractive one. " The females are arrayed in their 
gayest attire, their hair being combed back from the 
forehead and neatly done up in a knot, fastened with 
silver pins and small ornamental combs. The usual dress 
of the men is of white cotton. Flags and streamers, 
figured handkerchiefs and shawls, float from every con- 
venient receptacle. At intervals, tom-toms are beaten ; 
the rude trumpet sends forth its screams ; and the din 
of the music, the murmur of the people's voices, the firing 
of musketry and jinjalls, and the glare of the lamps. 
produce an effect not much in consonance with an act 
of worship " (Hardy). Usually only the Pali text is read, 
so that the people do not understand a word, and many 
fall asleep or chew betel. Whenever the name of Buddha 
is repeated by the reader, the people call out simulta- 
neously ; * Sadhu," an exclamation of joy. In many ways 
these readings are observed as festival occasions : thev 



i £6 MODERN BUDDHISM. 

take place at each, change of the moon, or four times in 
the lunar month. Great merit is said to accrue to all 
hearers who keep the eight precepts upon these service 
days. It is not proper to trade or to make trade calcula- 
tions on them, still less to injure any one. 

Another of the ceremonies in which the laity have a 
share is the " Pirit,'' or reading certain portions of the 
The Pirit scriptures as an exorcism against demons, i.e., 
ceremony, really malignant spirits who were formerly 
men. Certain portions of the scriptures are supposed to 
avail specially in this work, and these are collectively 
termed the Pirit. One of these contains the following : 
"All spirits here assembled, those of earth and those of 
air, let all such be joyful ; let them listen attentively to 
my words. Therefore hear me, ye spirits ; be friendly 
to the race of men ; for day and night they bring you 
their offerings ; therefore keep diligent watch over them. 
Ye spirits here assembled, those of earth and those of air, 
let us bow before Buddha, let us bow before the Law, 
let us bow before the Order." The recitation of the Pirit 
on a great occasion continues without interruption through 
seven days and nights, relays of priests being engaged, 
with many attendant circumstances of festivity. 

We now pass to the Buddhist order of monks in Ceylon, 
a priests " as they call themselves now-a-days. " In nearly 
BuddMst a ^ the villages and towns of Ceylon," says 
monks in Hardy, " that are inhabited by the Singhalese 
Ceylon. or Kandyans, the priests of Buddha are fre- 
quently seen, as they have to receive their food by taking 
the alms-bowl from house to house. They usually walk 
along the road at a measured pace, without taking much 
notice of what passes around. They have no covering 
for the head, and are generally barefooted. In the right 
hand they carry a fan, in shape not much unlike a hand- 
screen, which they hold up before the face when in the 
presence of women, that the entrance of evil thoughts 
into the mind may be prevented. The boAvl is slung 
from the neck, and is covered by the robe, except at the 
time when alms are received." There are several thou- 
sands of these living as celibates in simple leaf-huts or in 



SERVICES OF MONKS IN ILLNESS. 187 

viharas ; tliey follow substantially the rules given in the 
last chapter. Their countenances are usually less in- 
telligent-looking than those of the common people, with 
an appearance of great vacancy approaching imbecility ; 
a few rise above this state, but it is only the natural 
physical result of the kind of meditation and rote-worship 
in which they engage. Yet the populace regard them 
as a kind of inferior Buddhas, and paj^ them great 
deference. In their dress they repeat that attributed to 
Buddha ; it is assimilated to a yellow garment of rags, 
by the pieces being torn and sewn together again. The 
left shoulder is usually covered, the right bare. There 
is generally a school attached to the vihara, 
in which boys are taught to read, recite, and c 00 s * 
write, this last being first effected 011 sand with the finger. 
A large proportion of the books read relate to Buddhism. 
Latterly the Ceylon Buddhists have established a college 
at Colombo for the study of Sanskrit, Pali, and Singhalese. 
Each vihara has a head, and frequently possesses consider- 
able landed property, but there is no organised hierarchy. 
One of the most important services rendered by the 
Buddhists has been in their maintenance of schools ; the 
pupils in general become qualified to enter upon the 
Buddhistic novitiate at once, and the ceremony of initia- 
tion is a very simple one. 

Notwithstanding the limited sacerdotal functions as- 
signed to the monks, they are to a certain extent re- 
cognised in birth and marriage ceremonies, Services of 
especially in fixing auspicious clays for wed- _ monks 
dings. In case of illness, a monk is sent for, ^ mness - 
an offering -of flowers, oil, and food being at the same 
time forwarded. A temporary audience-place is fitted 
up close to the house, and here the monk reads from the 
scripture for six hours to the relatives and friends, and, 
if possible, the sick man also. Offerings are again given 
to the priest, who finally says, " Hy reverence do the wise 
secure health, by almsgiving do they lay up treasures 
for themselves.' 7 If he appears about to die, the monk 
recites the formula of profession of Buddhism, the five 
prohibitions (p. 152), and the four earnest reflections. As 



iCS 



MODERN BUDDHISM. 




ON THE SACRED PLATFORM OF THE RANGOON PAGODA, 



BURMESE BUDDHISM. 189 

a rule, in Ceylon, the dead are buried ; but the bodies 
of monks are burnt under decorated canopies, which are 
left to moulder away. 

BURMESE BUDDHISM. 

A very vivid picture of Buddhism in Burmah has 
been given by Mr. Scott in his fascinating booh, ' L The 
Burinan," published under the pseudonym of Burmese 
" Shway Yoe." Every boy goes to the 111011- monastery 
astery school from the age of eight, and is scnools - 
taught to read and write, the chief part of the teaching 
consisting of Buddhistic formulas and precepts ; and, until 
the English took possession of the country, every boy 
took the yellow robe at the close of his schooling, although 
he might retain it but for a short time ; and as yet com- 
paratively few have thrown off the conventional mode 
of education in favour of the Government schools. On 
entering the Order as a novice, at the age of Novices 
twelve or more, there is an elaborate ceremony, 
corresponding to baptism, at which the youth receives 
a new name, showing that it is now possible for him to 
escape from suffering ; but this is again lost when or if 
he returns to the world, though having borne it enables 
him to acid to his merits by good works. The ceremony 
includes the putting off of fine clothes, the shaving of 
the head, reciting a Pali prayer to be admitted to the 
Order as a novice, that he may walk steadily in the path 
to perfection, and finally attain to the blessed state of 
" Neh'ban/' as Nirvana comes to be rendered in Burmese, 
and the reception of the yellow robes and the begging-pot 
from the chief or abbot of the monastery. Finally, there 
is a feast at the parent's house. The stay of the novice 
in the monastery is not usually long, sometimes even 
only one claj^, but usually at least through one rainy 
season, or Wah (Vassa, sometimes called Lent by Euro- 
peans). Those who resolve to adopt the religious life 
enter upon advanced studies of Buddhist writings ; but 
many things hinder the novice, especially the duty of 
attending on the monks, begging, carrying umbrellas or 
books for his seniors. In Lower Burmah the parents 



190 MODERN BUDDHISM, 

sometimes send food regularly for their son, but this would 
not be allowed in Upper Burmah. 

In a Burmese monastery the whole community is roused 
a little before daylight, awakened by a big bell, and after 
A Burmese washing, each brother recites a few formulas, 
monastery. one f which is, u How great a favour has the 
Lord Buddha bestowed upon me in manifesting to me 
his law, through the observance of which I may escape 
hell and secure my salvation." The entire brotherhood 
assemble round the image of Buddha, recite the morning 
service, and then perform various domestic duties, the 
elder only meditating. A slight meal and an hour's study 
are followed by the procession of all the monks through 
the town, to receive food in the alms-bowl. On their 
return a portion is offered to Buddha's image, and then 
breakfast is taken. Strictly it ought to consist of the 
morning's gift, not specially dressed ; but usually this is 
now given to the scholars or any chance wanderers, while 
a tasty meal is prepared for the monks. Visits of courtesy 
or honour fill up part of the day, at which great ceremony 
is observed, the conversation, according to Shway Yoe, 
coming, round to the merit of almsgiving. After a light 
meal at noon, all return to work, some teaching, others 
studying the Buddhist books, overseeing the writers who 
copy manuscripts ; but the work of many is merely 
meditation, repeating the formulas of the Order, " while, 
throughout all, sounds the din of the schoolroom, where 
the pupils are shouting out their tasks at the top of their 
voices. The novices and monks may take a stroll in the 
evening, but at sunset all are summoned back, and the 
scholars recite the whole or part of their day's work to 
the abbot. So the evening passes till 8.30 or 9, when all 
assemble for devotion, before the image of Buddha. Then 
a novice loudly proclaims the hour, day, and year ; all 
bow before Buddha thrice, and similarly before the abbot, 
and then retire. The testimony of Shway Yoe is, that 
" the effect of such a school, presided over by an abbot 
of intelligence and earnestness, must infallibly work for 
the good of all connected with it, and especially so in 
the case of an impulsive, impressionable people like the 



LIFE OF A MONK, 



Burmese. As long as all the men of the country pass 
through the monasteries, the teachings of western mis- 
sionaries can have but little power to shake the hold 
of Buddhism on the people/' 

Among those who are fully recognised as monks, the 
Phon-gyeeof " great glory" is distinguished, having been 
at least ten years a monk, and having proved Tne Pnon- 
himself steadfast and self-denying. From this §r e e s - 
class the Say ah (head or abbot) is chosen. Beyond these 
is recognised the Provincial, overseeing a number of 
monasteries in a district, 
and the Sadaw, or royal 
teacher, of whom there 
are eight, forming a sort 
of supreme Burmese re- 
ligious board. It is al- 
ways possible to leave 
the monastery, in which 
point Buddhist monas- 
teries differ from most 
others. 

The life of a monk is 
an ideal one in many 
respects; food Life of a 
is supplied to monk, 
him ; he has no sermons 
to prepare ; he has few 
outside religious rites to 
attend ; and if he ob- 
serves the cardinal pre- 
cepts of Buddhism, he is continually accumulating merit. 
There is nothing in the admission or routine of the full 
monkhood which is not in essence contained in our chap- 
ters. Discipline is strictly maintained, the breaking of 
the prime commands being severely punished ; unfrock- 
ing, expulsion, possibly stoning, are penalties sufficiently 
heavy. The condition of an expelled monk is pitiable : 
" no one may speak to him ; no monk will take alms from 
him ; he can neither buy nor sell ; he is not allowed even 
to draw water from a well." If there is evil living or 




BURMESE IMAGE OF GAUTAMA. 



192 MODERN BUDDHISM. 

neglect of religious duty in a neighbourhood, the brethren 
invert their alms-bowls and cease to go out begging. 
This is felt to be so grave a censure that it does not fail 
to influence the most hardened in a very short time, yet 
laxities are not unknown. Some monks will receive 
money or gold, or will adopt circuitous methods of getting 
what they desire. So far has this proceeded that an 
active sect has arisen in lower Burmah to restore and 
maintain the true austerities and ordinances of Buddhism, 
and it has gained many adherents among laity as well 
as monks. On the whole, the monks are greatly re- 
verenced by the people, who make obeisance when they 
pass, the women kneeling down by the roadside in Upper 
Burmah. The oldest layman terms himself the disciple 
of the youngest monk, whose commonest actions are 
spoken of in magniloquent language. 

The monastery is an essential accompaniment of the 
Burmese village, away from bustle, surrounded by fine 
Monastery trees. Usually it is built of teak, sometimes 
buildings. f brick. All are oblong, and one storey high, 
the living rooms being raised eight or ten feet on pillars. 
The woodwork is ornamented with varied carving of 
figures and scroll-work ; the roofs appear as if constituting 
successive storeys — three, five, or seven. The main hall 
is divided into two portions — one for the scholars and a 
higher one for the reception of visitors. At the back of 
this, against the wall, are images of Buddha on a sort of 
altar, with candles, flowers, praying flags, etc. Near this 
are various treasures, books, manuscripts, chests, models 
of monasteries and pagodas, etc. This hall is also used 
as the sleeping place of the monks. Sometimes a number 
of these buildings are contained within one enclosure. 

The most gorgeous group of monastic buildings in the 
world probably is the Royal Monastery outside Manclalay. 
u Every building in it is magnificent ; every inch carved 
with the ingenuity of a Chinese toy, the whole ablaze 
with gold leaf and a mosaic of fragments of looking-glass. 
. . . The interior is no less elaborate. The wood- 
carving is particularly fine.' 7 But this is only one among 
many. The whole space between Mandalay Hill and the 



FUNERAL PYRE OF A BURMESE PHON-GYEE. 193 




FUNERAL PYRE OF A BURMESE PHON-GYEE. 



i 9 4 MODERN BUDDHISM. 

city is full of monasteries, some with excellent libraries 
of palm-leaf books ; while in Lower Burmah many do not 
possess even a complete copy of the three chief books of 
the " Lesser Vehicle." It being the special privilege 
of the lay believers to build and support monasteries, 
plenty of scope for such philanthropy is always allowed ; 
but many monasteries have a good deal of cash laid away. 
The Burmese are taxed most seriously by Buddhism, for 
abundant almsgiving must be supplemented by regular 
worship at the pagodas. 

The pagodas of Burmah are still more numerous than 
the monasteries, old crumbling ones beside new glittering 
Burmese buildings, as in India, with very many ima- 
pagodas. ginary relics of Buddha or other saints. All 
these buildings the Burmese call Zaydee, the offering 
place, or place of prayer ; while the more notable .pagodas 
are termed Payahs. A relic or sacred object is buried or 
enclosed in each ; without it no " htee," or umbrella, could 
crown its spire. Often these include golden images of 
Buddha with the hooded snake. They are based on the 
primitive mound plan, combined with the lotus, extended 
m many cases into an inverted bell with a spire. They 
are all made of sun-dried brick, very liable to decay, and 
only a few are renewed or made substantial enough for 
permanence. Some of the pagodas are surrounded at the 
base by a circle of smaller pagodas, each enshrining an 
image of Buddha, 

The most magnificent Buddhist temple is that at Ran- 
goon, the Shway Dagohn Pa}^ah, containing, it is said, 
The great ^g^ hairs of Gautama Buddha, beside relics 
Rangoon of the three Buddhas who preceded him. It 
temple, stands upon a huge mound of two terraces, 
the upper 166 feet above the ground outside, and in 
extent 900 feet by 685, The long flights of steps by 
which the ascent is made are covered by long ranges of 
handsome teak roofs, with frescoes showing scenes in 
Buddha's disciples' lives, and horrible scenes of the tor- 
ments of the wicked in hell. From the centre of the 
upper terrace rises the solid octagonal brick payah, 370 
feet high, abundantly gilt. At the top is the htee, or gilt 



THE GREAT RANGOON TEMPLE. 195 

umbrella of iron work of many rings, each with many 
jewelled bells of gold and silver, tinkling with every 
movement of the air. Four chapels at the foot of the 
pagoda have colossal sitting figures of Buddha, with 
hundreds of smaller ones in every style and posture, 
surrounding or even fixed upon them. The decorations 
and carvings upon and around these are elaborate beyond 
description ; the multitudes of bells of all sizes, from the 
great one of 42 tons downwards, deserve special mention. 
The great bell was carried off by the English after the 
second Burmese war, but by accident it capsized and lay 
at the bottom of the Eangoon river, and the English 
failed to raise it. The Burmese begged to be allowed 
to try, and with primitive appliances and great perse- 
verance succeeded in raising it, and so got it back again, 
to the great triumph of Buddhists ; and indeed the 
carrying off of religious emblems or property of any kind 
from a conquered people is a feat no Englishman has 
reason to be proud of. The original temple, 27 feet high, 
has been again and again encased with bricks rendering 
it larger and taller, and has thus attained its present 
height, and it is periodically regilt ; also the faithful are 
never tired of climbing as high as they can, and fixing 
squares of gold leaf upon it. " Lepers and cripples and 
nuns in their white robes line the steps and cry out in 
piteous tones for alms. Round the platform itself are 
sellers of candles and coloured tapers, Chinese incense 
sticks, and prayer flags, along with abundance of gold 
leaf. Numbers of young girls sit about with flowers, 
especially of the lotus, and meats of different kinds for 
offerings. The platform is never deserted. Even long 
after midnight the voice of the worshipper may be heard 
in the night air, chanting in solemn monotone his pious 
aspirations, while on a duty day, and especially on a feast 
day, the laughing, joyous crowd of men and maidens, 
in their gay national dress, makes tha platform of the 
Shway Dagohn one of the finest sights in the world.*' (B.) 
The Shway Maw-Daw, the lotus-shrine of Pegu ; the 
depository of the sacred hair at Prome, and the great tem- 
ple at Mandalay, are among the more remarkable temples 



196 



MODERN BUDDHISM. 



in Burmah. But we must not omit to mention the great 
collection of pagodas at Pagahn, the deserted 
aga *" capital on the Irrawacldy, extending for eight 
miles along the bank and for two miles inland. Colonel 
Yule, in his " Mission to Ava," has described them in 
detail. Some are cruciform vaulted temples, with great 
galleries and transepts, and remind visitors of old-world 
cathedrals ; others have minarets, pj^ramids of fretwork ; 
some are like huge bulbous mushrooms. It is said that 
there are nearly ten thousand more or less complete, but 




PAGODA AT PAGAHN. 



ruin is on many, and jungle-bushes have overgrown them. 
Yery many contain colossal figures of Buddha and sculp- 
tured groups. Again, Shway Goo, an island between 
Mandalay and Bhamo, is a great centre of temples, having 
nine hundred and ninety -nine. 

Thus we may gather some faint idea how deeply the 
belief in securing merit by building a pagoda has entered 
Burmese into the nature of the Burmese ; but, says 
worship. Shway Yoe, they are not idolaters ; they wor- 
ship neither relics nor images. The pagoda and the figure 



IMAGES OF BUDDHA. 197 

only furnish a fitting place to praise the great Buddha 
and to resolve to imitate his charity and sinless life. No 
actual prayers are offered to them ; simple praises learnt 
at the monastery school, or special forms made by the 
worshipper are repeated, and their character is similar 
to those we have already given samples of. They are 
not merely addressed to the image, but also to the entire 
building, and may be repeated anywhere, at a distance 
from it. Pilgrims to the Rangoon temple prostrate them- 
selves now and again, from the time they catch sight of 
the spire, repeating simple formulae or Pali sentences 
of which they may or may not know the meaning. 
Many of them have little paper prayer flags in various 
fanciful shapes, having written in the centre some pious 
sentence in Pali or Burmese. These are laid on the 
shrine, and add to the merit of the worshipper, as do the 
candles, lamps, flowers, incense-sticks, etc., which are 
offered. The worshippers, if they are men, squat down, 
resting the body on their heels. The body is bent a 
little forward, and the hands are joined together and 
raised to the forehead. The women kneel down alto- 
gether, and take especial care to cover up their feet. All 
are of course barefooted. Before commencing the repeti- 
tion of the formulae, three prostrations are made with the 
forehead to the ground. It is usual to hold some offering 
between the hands during worship, and this is afterwards 
reverently deposited on the altar. 

Strange to say, the Burmese have but little idea of 
perpetuating their images of Buddha ; few are of marble 
or brass ; most are of short-lived brick, mortar, images of 
and wood. - The utmost period for which they Buddha, 
could endure would be as nothing in comparison with 
the countless future ages. Their variety, too, is not 
great; they are either standing in the preaching atti- 
tude, sitting cross-legged, or recumbent and representing 
the approach of death. The erect figures are usually 
very large ; these are common in Upper Burmah. some 
forty feet high : many have been and are frequently 
gilt. In Lower Burmah the whole of the receptacles 
near the shrines are crammed full of little images of all 



198 MODERN BUDDHISM. 

kinds. ' Only a few great images are carved or placed in 
the open. 

The ignorant in some cases ascribe miracles to particular 
images or relics, but all enlightened Buddhists strongly 
repudiate those beliefs, and only unprincipled monks can 
now and then be got to propagate them. There is one 
noteworthy marble Buddha at the foot of Mandalay Hill, 
twenty-five feet high, carved out of one block, scores 
of tons in weight. Another on the top of the hill has 
gold leaf only on the eyeballs, and its constant renewal 
by the faithful causes the pupils to protrude frightfully. 
Other notable images are formed of bricks laid against 
rock surfaces. Many are deserted, marks of past popula- 
tions, still reverenced by the chance visitor, but regarded 
more with curiosity than adoration. 

The pagoda feasts are the great holidays of the Burmese, 
each shrine having its own day, and they considerably 

Pagoda resemble the great fairs of medieval Europe, 

feasts. a f ew minutes spent at the shrine, reciting 
sentences in praise of Buddha, sufficing for the devotions 
of most of the visitors, while a few listen to the reading 
and expounding of the sacred books by the head of the 
monastery. The four feast days every month are also 
well observed, and have in general been made to coincide 
with Sunday in Lower Burmah since the British occupa- 
tion ; but there is much variation in the strictness with 
which the day is kept. The three months of Wah (cor- 
responding to Vassa) are kept as a sort of Lent, without 
fasting, but with special observance of religious duties, 
and absence of feasts and marriages. Often the richer 
people get monks to expound the law in their houses, 
and invite their friends to hear them. The end of this 
season is celebrated by a carnival, including in Rangoon 
much feasting and even plays in the monasteries and 
grand illuminations. 

Notwithstanding the firm hold which Buddhism has 
upon the Burmese, they still propitiate the nature-spirits 
.or nats, as if Buddhism were unknown. The 
wors ip. wor( j " na f j n Burmese has two distinct mean- 
ings, one kind of nats being the inhabitants of the six 



ENTRANCE TO THE S HIV AY DAGOHA] RANGOON. 199 

inferior heavens, the clevas, transferred from the Veclic 
mythology, and the other the spirits of the air, water, 
and forest. The last are most diligently propitiated, for 




fear of the harm they may do, at a little shrine at the 
end of each village. Sometimes, it is a mere bamboo 
cage with a gaudy image or images of a fetish-like 
ugliness, to which offerings are made by the villagers. 



200 MODERN BUDDHISM. 

In fact, the whole category of local spirits, disease spirits, 
demons, omens, and magic-workers is to be found in con- 
siderable force in Burmah, though greatly frowned upon 
by the Buddhist priests. Lucky and unlucky days, clays 
proper for special things or improper for others, have also 
very great influence in Burmese life, and in them the 
astrologers find great profit. So that concurrently with 
the more advanced notions of Buddhism, there 

nimism. ma y ^ f und in Burmah practically the whole 
round of primitive notions about the spirit world. The 
butterfly spirit is the Burmese idea of the essential spirit 
of human life, which may wander in dreams, be charmed 
or afflicted by demons and wizards^ be preserved by 
witch-doctors, and which finally departs at death. 

Marriage in Burmah is not a religious ceremony, being 

contrary to the celibate ideas of the monks ; but in burials 

Funerals the latter are largely concerned. They are 

of laity, summoned to stay in the house of death as a 
protection from evil spirits ; they deliver addresses on 
the vanity of human desires and the uncertainty and 
wretchedness of life ; they receive large alms, determining 
the extent of their services, and at the grave they recite 
the five commandments and the ten good works, and 
various sentences in Pali. When they are leaving with 
their alms, the chief mourner pours water on to the 
ground and says, " May the deceased and all present share 
the merit of the offerings made and the ceremonies now 
proceeding," that the earth may remember it when men 
forget. For a week after, feasting and mourning go on 
in most cases, the monks receiving offerings, reciting Pali 
sentences, driving off evil spirits, and purifying the house. 
Many people in Burmah are still cremated. 

The funeral of a monk is very different. When he 
dies, he simply returns to one of the various heavens, and 

Funerals his funeral is called "Phongyee byan," the 
of monks, return of the great glory. A notable monk 
has a funeral that is attended by people from all around. 
After elaborate preparations, the body is enclosed in a 
gorgeous sarcophagus, painted with religious subjects and 
variously decked. It lies in state for months under an 



SIAMESE TEMPLES. 201 

open teak building called a u monastery for the dead/ 7 
hung with gift-paintings of all kinds of subjects and 
various other gifts, and is visited by streams of pilgrims, 
who say their religious sentences, make offerings of flowers 
and fruit, and give contributions towards the final cere- 
mony. This is the erection and burning of the funeral 
pyre : an elaborately decorated seven-roofed building, 
with a spire rising to seventy feet, is erected in a space 
cleared of jungle ; the funeral car, previous to the coffin 
being placed upon it, is the subject of a prolonged "tug 
of war," the victory of those who are privileged to drag 
the car bringing abundant merit to them and being 
highly prized. The coffin is at last dragged to the pyre 
and lifted to its platform, beneath which an abundant 
supply of combustibles is heaped. Finally the whole is 
lighted by rockets fired from a distance. The bones of 
the deceased are gathered up and buried near the pagoda. 
Unlike other Buddhist countries, a shrine or pagoda is 
not erected over the dead in Burmah. 

SIAMESE BUDDHISM. 

After this account of Burmese Buddhism it will not be 
necessary to say much of its Siamese form, which is very 
similar. The Siamese monks, though their monasteries 
are sometimes elaborate buildings, only remain in them 
during the rainy season. The sacred footprint of Buddha, 
five feet long by two broad, known as the Phra Bat, is 
greatly venerated, and has a shrine erected over it, at 
which valuable gifts are offered. There is no real likeness 
to a foot, and the cavity has scarcely any markings on 
it ; but it is venerated as a genuine relic. There are 
plenty of markings on the supposed genuine copies of it, 
divided into 108 compartments, with figures having an 
elaborate symbolic relationship to Buddhism. On the 
whole, it may be said that Buddhism is more strictly 
observed in Siam than in Burmah. 

The great temple, " Wat Poh," in Bangkok, contains 
an enormous gilt figure of the dying Buddha, Siamese 
about 160 feet long, constructed of bricks, temples, 
lacquered and heavily gilt. The huge foot-soles are in- 



202 MODERN BUDDHISM. 

laid with motlier-of-pearl figures illustrating stories of 
Buddha's life. The floor is of tesselated marble. Another 
great temple, — the "Wat Chang/' or Elephant Temple, — 
has a lofty spire with external decoration in remarkable 
patterns which at a distance look like mosaics of precious 
stones, but are in truth nothing but a mixture of broken 
glass, crockery, and shells. A representation of the three- 
headed elephant is prominently placed on each of the 
four facades of this temple. 

Cremation is the usual mode of disposing of the dead. 

Priests pray day and night in the house until the body 

is removed to the temple-grounds. The interval 

rema ion. ] De ^ )ween death and burial varies according to 
the rank and wealth of the family ; it may even be pro- 
tracted for months, during which the prayers go on 
continuously, the coffin being covered with flowers. But 
the devouring of bodies by vultures and dogs is not at 
all uncommon. 

The Laos believe that children are the offspring of 
the spirits ; and when newly born, they are placed on the 

Newborn top of the ladder leading to the house, and 

children, the spirits are called to take away the child at 
once or not to molest it afterwards. Various offerings to 
the spirits are made ; and on the second day the child 
is considered out of their power, and is nominally sold 
to some relative for a trifle, it being supposed that the 
spirits would not take what has been thus sold. 

The Siamese as a rule have but one wife. The Bud- 
dhist priests are called in to the marriage ceremony, read 
an extract from their scriptures, and pray for a blessing 
on the pair, who are then sprinkled with holy water. 
After further prayers and feasting the marriage is com- 
plete. 

It is significant of possibilities of Buddhist revival, that 
in Siam in recent years free Buddhist churches have 
Reformed arisen, rejecting the miraculous and mythical 
sects in siam. elements, and recurring to the pure moral 
teachings of the founder. The late king gave a powerful 
support to these churches and their efforts. His foreign 
minister, Chao Phya Phraklang, wrote " a book explain- 



REFORMED SECTS IN SIAM. 203 

ing many things/ 7 showing that much of the popular 
mythology was not essential to Buddhism, although he 
retained the belief in Buddha having visited the heavens 
and taught the angels. He may be called a Buddhist 
rationalist, teaching a universal morality. Having studied 
Christianity very carefully, he rejected it, terming it " a 
foolish religion." His book, as translated by Mr. Alabas- 
ter, is worth reading as a specimen of the keen criticism 
Christian missionaries encounter from educated Buddhists. 
A brief quotation from a passage relating to the future 
state will be found of interest. " We observe that some 
die young, others live to old age ; some are born great, 
others not ; some rich, others poor ; some beautiful, others 
ugly ; some never suffer illness, others are continually ill, 
or blind, or deaf, or deformed, or mad. If w r e say that 
God made these, we must regard Him as unjust, partial, 
and ever changing ; making those suffer who have never 
done anything to deserve suffering, and not giving to 
men in general that average of good and bad fortune 
which attends even the speculations of the gambler. 
But if we believe in the interchange and succession of 
life throughout all beings (i.e., the transmigration of souls), 
and that good and evil arise from ourselves, and are the 
effects of merit and demerit, we have some grounds for 
belief. 

" Those who believe that after death the soul passes to 
hell or heaven for ever, have no proof that there is no 
return thence. Certainly it would be a most excellent 
thing to go direct to heaven after death, without further 
change, but I am afraid that it is not the case. For the 
believers in -it, who have not perfectly purified their 
hearts, and prepared themselves for that most excellent 
place, where there is no being born, growing old, and 
dying, will still have their souls contaminated with 
uneradicated evil. . . . How is it possible that those 
who have not cleared away the evil disposition from their 
soul should attain the most excellent heaven, and live 
eternally with God the Creator ? And of those who are 
to remain in hell for ever, many have made merit and 
done much good. Shall that be altogether lost? " 




THE TH11EE PRECIOUS ONES (CHINESE BUDDHISM). 



CHAPTER IX. 
iftofcrit 3StrtitiI)tem. H. 

Tibetan Buddhism— Tibetan Scriptures— Worship of the Triad— The Bodhi- 
satvas— Maitreya— The Dhyani-Buddhas— Buddhist heavens— The Lamas 
—The Grand Lama— History of Tibetan Buddhism— The Mongol emperors 
—The Dalai and Panchen Lamas— Succession of Grand Lamas— Great 
monasteries— The Vatican of Buddhism— Interview with Grand Lama - 
Tashi Lunpo— Praying" by machinery— Prayer cylinders— Prayer walls 
and flags -Daily worship of monks— Festivals— Fasts— The Papal domain 
of Buddhism— Chinese Buddhism— Introduction of Buddhism to China- 
Chinese life of Buddha— Mythical details— Buddhist patriarchs— The 
Buddhist books translated— Opposition of Confucianists— Bodhidharma 
—The Mongol emperors -Modern discouragement— Present state— Tem- 
ples— Images in the halls— Realism of images— Kwan-yin— Anntabha— 
Halls of 500 saints— Tien-tai— Schools of Chinese Buddhism— The Lin- 
tsi— Monasteries and monks— Ascetics— Nunneries— Popular aspect- 
Buddhist calendar— Influence of Buddhism on China— The Do-Nothing 
Sect— Japanese Buddhism— The Shin-Shin. 

TIBETAN BUDDHISM. 

THE Buddhism of Tibet may be said to pervade and 
dominate the national life. The Buddhist leaders 
practically rule and possess the entire land, paying little 
more than nominal allegiance to China. 1 Their hierarchy, 

1 See Sir Monier- Williams's " Buddhism " — Edkins's " Chinese Bud- 
dhism " and " Beligion in China" — Beal's " Chinese Buddhism." 

201 



THE BODHI-SATVAS. 205 

monasteries, ceremonies, and images are repeatedly in- 
stanced as the most elaborate parallel which can be found 
to the Roman Catholic system ; and it is certain that 
Buddhism in Tibet presents an almost complete contrast 
to the simplicity of Gautama's Order. It did not reach 
Tibet till the seventh century a.d., when it had already 
a history of more than a thousand years behind it, and 
had gained predominance in Kashmir and Nepal. The 
Tibetans, like other Mongoloid peoples, had a Shamanistic 
nature worship, with much magic and sorcery and dread 
of spirits ; and it is little doubtful that their previous 
beliefs largely influenced the modification which Buddhism 
underwent. 

We will first give some notion of the developments 
which the central doctrines of Buddhism underwent in 
the Tibetan Scriptures. The Triad, Buddha, Tibetan 
the Law or Doctrine, and the Order had already Scriptures, 
become venerated, and we find that Fa-hien on his travels 
committed himself to the Order as a sort of personality, 
invoking it by its " dread and supernatural worship of 
power." Images of Buddha became common, the Triad, 
and at a later period the Law and the Order began to 
be symbolised among the northern peoples. The Law is 
now often represented as a man (a woman in Sikkim) 
with four arms, two hands folded in worship, or raised, 
a third holding a book or a lotus, the fourth a rosary or 
a garland ; but the Law is in some cases only represented 
by a book. The Order is depicted as a man with one 
hand holding a lotus, and the other lying on his knees. 
Strangely enough, the order of arrangement of these 
three representative figures is not uniform. 

The next further development of Buddhism was con- 
nected with Gautama's Bodhi-satva state. Before he was 
born on earth, he was believed to have last The Bodhi- 
existed in a state of self-enlightened knowledge satvas. 
as a Bodhi-satva, and to have voluntarily chosen to be- 
come a saviour of the world before attaining the Nirvana 
to which he was entitled. He led his followers to look 
.for the advent of another Buddha, now a Bodhi-satva, 
known as Maitreya. "the compassionate one/' after 5.000 



206 MODERN BUDDHISM. 

years, when Gautama should have been forgotten and 

Maitreya ^ ie "^ aw n0 -^ 0I1 g er obeyed. At present he is 
believed to preside in the heaven of contented 
beings and to watch over all Buddhists and their interests. 
Inasmuch as he lives and is the future Buddha, not 
merely one who has passed away, he has become an 
object of worship and prayer. Huen-Siang reported that 
it was said, "No words can describe the personal beauty 
of Maitreya. He declares a law not different from ours. 
His exquisite voice is soft and pure.' 7 And his wor- 
shippers look forward to attaining his heaven and listen- 
ing to his voice. 

Beyond this, the memory of the leading disciples of 
Buddha and those who became prominent later for their 
holy life, ability, or zeal in propagating the faith, was in 
process of time exalted into what could only be properly 
compared with canonisation or almost deification. Also 

solitary an idea grew up that there were self-dependent 

Buddhas. solitary Buddhas and many Bodhi-satvas. The 
Great Vehicle or Maha-j^ana teaches that there will be 
numberless supreme Buddhas, Bodhi-satvas and solitary 
Buddhas, who will attain their position by their virtues 
and wisdom ; and these Bodhi-satvas are represented as 
enjoying heaven indefinitely without aiming at Nirvana. 
In fact, the Tibetan idea is, that these Buddhas and 
saints only descend in their corporeal emanations upon 
earth, much like the avatars of the Hindu gods, being 
incorporate in a succession of saints. Naturally they are 
much reverenced, as they are believed to raise their wor- 
shippers to the blissful heaven where they abide. Thus 
did Buddhism give promise of heavens which were 
attainable, and throw into the background the far-distant 
Nirvana. 

In the third century three Bodhi-satvas were wor- 
shipped in Northern India besides Maitreya. At first 
protectors of Buddha, they were gradually credited with 
the function of watching over all Buddhists. The first, 
Avalokitesvara, the lord that looks down (with pity), is 
in Tibet regarded as a sort of supreme spirit, who, while 
remaining ever in heaven, becomes incarnated in sue- 



BUDDHIST HEAVENS. 



207 



cessive Grand Lamas. He presides over the temporal 
well-being of all human beings, ghosts, and animal spirits. 
He is termed " God of mercy/' 4 * Lord of the world," etc., 
and is prayed to very frequently in bodily danger or 
disease, as well as for relief from future re-birth. He 
is generally depicted with several faces and arms, the 
former pyramidally placed in three tiers, two hands folded 
in adoration of Buddha, and two others holding the lotus 
and the wheel. Often he greatly resembles Vishnu. 
Vajra-pani (the thunderbolt-handed) is a sort of Buddhist 
Siva, controlling and destroying evil spirits ; while Manju- 
sri (he of glorious beauty) is possibly a 
deification of the Brahman who introduced 
Buddhism into Nepal. 

Later still a new mystical worship arose, 
worshipping the Dhyani-Buddhas, or Bud- 
dhas existing in the higher TheDhyani- 
worlds of abstract meditation, Buddnas. 
corresponding to the earthly Buddhas and 
representing them. Each of these was 
supposed to give off a Dhyani Bodhi-satva, 
to preside over and protect Buddhism be- 
tween the death of one Buddha and the 
coming of the next ; and before long, the 
Dhyani-Buddha corresponding to Gautama, 
namely Amitabha (diffuser of infinite light), 
was worshipped as a personal god. Some 
of the Nepalese Buddhists developed a still 
more advanced theory of a primordial or 
Adi-Buddha, the source of all things, out 
of whom the Dhyani-Buddhas proceeded, and correspond- 
ing to the Hindu supreme Brahma. But neither Adi- 
Buddha nor Amitabha were regarded as creators of the 
world out of nothing. 

The elaborate descriptions of the twenty-six successive 
Buddhist heavens, in which many of the Hindu gods 
were fabled to dwell and reign, we cannot Buddiiist 
reproduce. Six are inhabited by beings still heavens, 
liable to sensuous desires ; sixteen by those in successive 
stages of abstract meditation, called the worlds of the 




TIBETAN PRAYER 
WHEEL. 



2oS MODERN BUDDHISM. 

Brahma gods, and Brahma rules there, but yet is greatly 
inferior to Buddha. All these gods have to pass into a 
new form of existence after vast periods of time. Finally, 
there are four heavens of formless beings. All their 
mythology, though departing enormously from primitive 
Buddhism, does not violate the view that Buddhist Arhats 
(saints) and Buddhas are ranked above ail the popular 
divinities* We need not enlarge upon other additions 
to Buddhism from Hinduism, and also from popular 
beliefs in demons, spirits of animals, nature spirits, 
sorcery, and magic. These additions are abundant, and 
rise but little, if at all, above the corresponding ideas 
and practices among savage races. 

"We shall not detail the inferior gradations of the Tibetan 
monkhood^ but pass on at once to the superior monks, 

The Lamas w ^° are rightfully termed Lamas, or superior 
teachers, and are, like European abbots, heads 
of monasteries. Some of these are believed to be incar- 
nations of deceased saints and Bodhi-satvas ; they are 
consequently termed Avatara Lamas. The lowest grade 
of these represents a saint or the founder of a great 
monastery ; the second grade is a living emanation of 

The Grana a Bodhi-satva ; while the highest or Grand 
Lamas. Lama is an incarnation of a supreme Buddha 
or his Bodhi-satva ; to them a wide range of authority is 
assigned. There is also a female hierarchy in the con- 
vents, with its female avatars. 

To understand the Tibetan s}^stem, we must sketch in 
brief its history. The first monasteries were founded at 

History of Lhassa in honour of two princesses, wives of 
Tibetan the Tibetan king who introduced Buddhism. 

Buddhism. j n ^e ^jgj^ century the translation of the 
enlarged (Maha-yana) canon of Buddhist scriptures into 
Tibetan w^as begun. It extended to 108 volumes (forming 
the Kanjur), and was followed by 225 volumes of com- 
mentaries and general literature, known as the Tanjur. 
After several fluctuations, in the latter part of the 
eleventh century Buddhism again revived, under the 
influence of Atisha from Kashmir and Brom Ton, a 
Tibetan. Many monasteries were founded in that and 



THE DALAI AND PANCHEN LAMAS. 209 

tlie next centuries, those at Sakya and Raseng being the 
most important. Raseng, founded by Brom Ton in 1058, 
was devoted to the strict rules of Buddhism (the yellow 
sect) ; Sakya was more lax, and became the The Mongol 
headquarters of the red sect, many of whom emperors, 
were married before becoming monks. In the thirteenth 
century the power of the Mongols spread over Tibet. 
Kublai Khan adopted Buddhism and greatly favoured 
the Tibet monks. Already great authority had gathered 
round the chiefs of the Sakya and the Raseng monas- 
teries, and Kublai exerted his authority to appoint the 
nephew of the ruler of the Salrya monastery to succeed 
his uncle, and made him a tributary ruler over Tibet. 
In return for his authority, he and his successors were 
required to crown the Mongol emperors. This first Grand 
Avatara Lama, known as Phuspa Lama, devised the 
Mongol alphabet, started a revision of the Tibetan Bud- 
dhist texts, which prepared the way for their translation 
into Mongolian, and founded many monasteries. When 
the Ming dynasty supplanted the Mongols in China, they 
continued to favour the Tibetan Lamas, but raised three 
other chief Lamas to similar rank. At the end of the 
fourteenth century there arose a reformer, Tsong Khapa, 
who, after studying the originals of the Buddhist scrip- 
tures in Tibet, raised again the standard of orthodoxy, 
and gathered round him many thousand monks of the 
strict yellow sect ; he built and became the first head of 
a great monastery at Galdan, and his followers built 
others. He wrote many books, restored celibacy, abolished 
many superstitious forms of worship, and renewed the 
practice of retirement for meditation at a fixed season, 
which had not been kept up in Tibet owing to its lack 
of a rainy season. After his death in 1419 (since cele- 
brated at the Feast of Lamps, as his ascension to heaven), 
he was reverenced as an' incarnation of Amitabha, Man- 
ju-sri, or Yajra-pani, and his image is still seen Tlle Dalai and 
in temples of the yellow sect, with those of the Panchen 
Dalai and Panchen Lamas on the right and Lamas - 
left. Since his time (though it cannot be precisely traced) 
there has arisen the practice of discovering each new 



2io MODERN BUDDHISM. 

incarnation in an infant, probably to avoid discussions 
and competition. At any rate, at present there are two 
Grand Lamas : one the Dalai or Ocean Lama, at Lhassa, 
the other the Tashi or Panchen Lama at Tashi Lunpo, 
not far from the British Indian frontier. The former is 
believed to be an incarnation of the Dhyani-Bodhi-satva 
Avalokitesvara, the latter of his father or Dhyani-Buddha, 
Amitabha ; but the Dalai Lama is by far the most 
powerful, or rather his representative, an elected chief 
Lama who attends to business, while the Dalai himself 
Succession of is supposed to be lost in divine meditation, and 
Grand Lamas, receives the reverence and worship due to his 
character and origin. There appear to have been various 
modes of keeping up the succession, viz., by the dying 
Lama stating in what family he would again become 
incarnate, or by consulting sacred books and soothsayers, 
or by the Panchen Lama interpreting the traditions and 
discovering the new Dalai Lama, and vice versa. Now-a- 
days the Chinese court has a predominant influence in 
choosing new Grand Lamas. Yet all the forms of divina- 
tion, signs, choice by lot, etc., are gone through ; and 
similar proceedings take place in the election of all Lamas 
in whom saints are supposed to be incarnated. The same 
is the case in various Mongolian monasteries. When 
the choice has been made, the child is brought before a 
great assembly of the monks, and is expected to recognise 
clothes, books, etc., belonging to the deceased Lama, and 
to answer questions as to his former life as Lama. Among 
the chief Lamas may be mentioned those of Galdan 
(where the body of Tsong Khapa is said to be still visible 
poised in the air, and uncorrupt), Kurun in Mongolia, 
Kuku in Tartary, the Dharma-rajah of Bhutan, and the 
Grand Lama of Peking. The Dharma-rajah of Bhutan, 
belonging to the Red sect, has for his titles : " Chief of 
the realm, Defender of the Faith, Equal to Saras vati in 
learning, Chief of all the Buddhas, Head- expounder of 
the Shastras, Caster out of devils, Most learned in the 
holy laws, an Avatar of God, Absolver of sins, and Head 
of the best of all religions." 

While in many parts of northern Buddhistic countries 



GREAT MONASTERIES. 



211 



the monasteries are small buildings near or combined 
with a chapel or temple, in Tibet, Mongolia, Great 
and Ladak there are many immense monasteries monasteries. 







■■L 

111 ill 






,1 11 
SlSIlllliilill! M 



or Lamassenes often in retired and lofty situations, but 
also aggregated about great centres such as Lhassa and 
lashi Lunpo. About 500,000 monks owe allegiance to 



212 MODERN BUDDHISM. 

these two capitals, and there are at least thirty large 
monasteries in and near Lhassa. Potala, on the north- 
west of Lhassa, has been the abode of all the Dalai 
The Vatican Lamas since the fifth, Navang Lobsang (1617- 
of Buddhism. 1682), who rebuilt it. This great building, 
four storeys high, on a commanding height, has in or 
connected with it ten thousand rooms for monks. Every- 
where are statues of Buddha and other saints, and varied 
offerings of the pious, who throng to Lhassa to pay their 
■worship to the Grand Lama, with gifts of gold, silver, 
and copper. The great building is surmounted by a 
cupola overlaid with gold. 

Thomas Manning is the only Englishman who has ever 
seen a Dalai Lama ; this was on the 17th December, 1811. 

interview He described him as a cheerful, intelligent 
with Grand child of seven. Mr. Sarat Chandra Das, C.I.E., 
Lama - saw the present Dalai Lama in 1882. The 
interview was conducted with impressive silence and 
dignity by the high officials. Consecrated water coloured 
yellow with saffron was sprinkled on the company ; in- 
cense, great lamps, and a yellow hat with five points 
(denoting the five Dhyani-Buddhas) are important ele- 
ments in the ceremonial, which is not complete without 
all sharing tea with the Lama from a golden teapot, 
preceded by a grace in proper Buddhist form, and con- 
cluding thus: " Never even for a moment losing sight 
of the three Holies (Buddha, the Law, and the Order) ; 
always offer reverence to the Tri-ratnas (or three jewels) ; 
let the blessings of the three be upon us." Consecrated 
rice, touched by the Grand Lama, was distributed to the 
faithful. The sacred youth sat all through the ceremony 
cross-legged on a throne- like altar with wooden lions on 
either side. 

It is said that Lhassa almost vies with Benares and 
Mecca as a place of pilgrimage, Potala, the Vatican of 
Buddhism, being the great resort ; and the rice, the pills 
of blessing, the scraps of silk, and the prayer-papers or 
flags which the Grand Lama has consecrated, are treasured 
for life. 

Tashi Lunpo, with its great monastery of the Panchen 



PRAYING BY MACHINERY. 213 

Lama, lias been much more frequently visited by Euro- 
peans. This monastery is much more varied, 
consisting of several hundred distinct houses, as 1 unp0, 
surrounded by pinnacled gilded temples and topes. It is, 
however, in connection with the oldest monastery — La- 
brang in Lhassa — that the greatest temple of Buddhism 
in Tibet is to be found. It is three storeys high, with 
a portico and colonnade of huge wooden pillars. Opposite 
the entrance are the usual great statues of the four great 
kings ; beyond is a long oblong hall, like a basilica, with 
rows of columns dividing it into three longitudinal 
divisions, with two transepts. The walls contain no 
windows, but across the central division or nave is 
stretched transparent oil-cloth, which is the only mode 
of admission of daylight to the building. A row of small 
chapels flanks each side of the long building. In the 
transepts are seats for the monks, and beyond the second 
is a sanctuary with an altar for offerings ; at the extreme 
west end, in a special recess, is a grand altar with many 
steps, and on the summit is the revered gilt image of 
Gautama Buddha, respecting the origin of which various 
stories are told. On the upper steps of the altar are 
many images of deified saints ; and the temple contains 
very many images and pictures of Buddha, saints and 
deities, as well as relics. In front of this altar are lofty 
thrones for the Dalai and Panchen Lamas, flanked by 
smaller ones for the other Avatar Lamas ; seats of less 
dignity are provided for the heads of monasteries and 
higher orders of monks in the western transept. Five 
thousand oil lamps give light, and the muttering of the 
chief Buddhist formula goes on continually. Tibetan 
temples are usually much smaller than this ; the chief 
features are altars with images of Buddha and the Bodhi- 
satvas, bowls for offerings, bells, etc. 

The Tibetan Buddhists have outdone every other race 
in one respect ; that is, in praying by machinery. Im- 
pressed with the importance of accumulating praying* by 
religious merit as a means of shortening their machinery. 
stay in lower forms of life, and accelerating their entrance 
to heaven, they not only orally repeat multitudes of 



214 MODERN BUDDHISM. 

times the " jewel " formula, which has acquired such 
vogue among them, but they get it repeated by turning 
machines or extending flags to the wind, in or on which 
the sacred formula is written. This formula consists 
merely of the sentence, " Om mani padme Hum." The 
first syllable is the Hindu sacred syllable ; the next 
two words mean, " the Jewel in the Lotus," an allu- 
sion, it is said, to Avalo-kitesvara as the patron of 
Tibet appearing from or seated on a Lotus. The last 
syllable is regarded by some as an Amen. The whole 
formula is thought by Sir Monier- Williams to have some 
relation to Hindu Siva-worship, and, he says, "no other 
prayer used by human beings in any quarter of the globe 
is repeated so often. Every Tibetan believes it to be a 
panacea for all evil, a compendium of all knowledge, a 
treasury of all wisdom, a summary of all religion." Each 
of its syllables is believed to influence one of the six 
courses or stages of transmigration through which all 
must pass, diminishing his stay in them, or in time 
abolishing it altogether. 

The favourite prayer cylinders are of metal, having 

the mystic invocation engraved on the outside, while the 

cavity is filled with paper in rolls, on which it is written 

Prayer as many times as possible. This cylinder can 

cylinders, be made to revolve on a handle, and is whirled 
in the hand, or rotated by a chain or string. " All 
day long," says Capt. Gill in " The River of Golden 
Sand," "not only the Lamas, but the people may be 
seen muttering the universal prayer, and twisting their 
cylinders, invariably in the same direction with the hands 
of a clock. One or more great cylinders, inscribed with 
this sentence, stand at the entrance to every house in 
Tibet ; and a member of the household or a guest who 
passes is always expected to give th.e cylinder a twist for 
the welfare of the establishment. At almost every rivu- 
let the eye is arrested by a little building that is at first 
mistaken for a water mill, but which on close inspection 
is found to contain a cylinder, turning by the force of the 
stream, and ceaselessly sending up pious ejaculations to 
heaven ; for every turn of a cylinder on which the prayer 



PRAYER WALLS AND FLAGS. 



21- 



is written is supposed to convey an invocation to the 
deity. Sometimes enormous barns are filled with these 
cylinders, gorgeously painted, and with the prayer re- 
peated on them many times ; and at every turn and 
every step in Tibet this sentence is forced upon the 
traveller's notice in some form or another." 

Another variety of praying ingenuity is the erection 
of long walls inscribed with any number of this Prayer wans 
and other invocations, by which travellers who and fla s s - 
walk in the proper direction gain the credit of so many 




EMBL2M OF LHARMA (THE IAw), AT 
SANCHI (BUDDHTST). 



EMBLEM OF DHABMA, TEMPLE 
OF JAGANNATH, PUBI. 



repetitions. ■ Praying-flags, with prayers and symbols, 
extended by every wind, praying drums which frighten 
away evil spirits, bells which have the same function, or 
which call the attention of the deities or saints, armlets 
with sacred sentences or relics inside, and various other 
objects, are among the " properties " greatly used in 
Tibetan Buddhism, while the rosary for counting the 
number of repetitions of prayer is a more familiar ob- 
ject in Tibet than even in Roman Catholic countries. 
The monks of the Tibetan monasteries meet in their 



216 MODERN BUDDHISM. 

temple or cliapel three times a day for worship : at sun- 

Daiiy r ^ se j midday, and sunset. They are summoned 

worship of by a loud conch-shell trumpet, and enter in 

monks, procession. A bell gives the signal to commence 
repeating or chanting prayer formulas, passages of the 
Law, litanies, etc., often with noisy musical accompani- 
ments. The ritual is varied by each monk repeating a 
sentence in turn, the recital of the praises and titles of 
honour of Buddha or one of the Bodhi-satvas. When 
one of the Grand Lamas is present, the service is very 
elaborate. Incense and perfumes are burnt, and at times 
holy water and grain are distributed. In some ceremonies 
tea-drinking is a conspicuous element. Laymen play 
but a very subordinate part in these services. They are 
allowed to be present, repeating prayers and invocations 
and making offerings ; they may also acquire merit by 
walking round monasteries, temples, etc., without stop- 
ping. Sometimes they cany loads of books containing 
prayers, and frequently prostrate themselves at full length 
on the ground; at the end of their journey they are held 
to have gained the same merit as if they had recited all 
the prayers in the books they carried. 

The Tibetans have a number of special festivals which 

we can only briefly mention. The new year's celebration, 

lasting a fortnight, is a sort of carnival ; at the 

es lva s. ^ater-festival in August or September, rivers 
and lakes are blessed, and the people bathe to wash away 
their sins. Buddha's birthday and the anniversary of 
his death are very important days ; on the latter, every 
monastery and temple, and every house' in Lhassa is 
darkened with the burning of incense. The festival of 
lamps, the ascent of TsongKhapa to heaven; and days 
of spirit-hunting and performances of religious dramas, 
are among the diversified holidays of Tibet. Periods of 
fasting, especially before the great festivals, are observed 
by the devout. Of course these are more ob- 
served by the monks of the yellow sect. One 
of these periods of fasting lasts four days, during which 
the monks confess their faults and meditate on the evils 
of demerit. On the third clay no food whatever is taken, 



WORSHIP IN A BUDDHIST MONASTERY. 217 




THE CALL TO WORSHIP IN A BUDDHIST MONASTERY. 



2i3 MODERN BUDDHISM. 

and not even the saliva must be swallowed ; not a word is 
spoken, and each monk is engaged without intermission 
in silent prayer and confession. Many monks keep the 
four holy days of each month as fast days. 

Tibet, then, is the Papal domain of Buddhism. Some 

lamasseries are enormously rich. They own half the 

The Papal country, constantly receive legacies, and even 

domain of grow rich by usury. No taxes are paid by 

Buddnism. them, and their own lands are attended to by 

large numbers of slaves. Many of the monks do not keep 

their vows of celibacy, and the common people are said 

in their hearts to detest the Lamas for their oppression. 

Whether this is generally true or not, every rational 

mind will agree that Tibetan Buddhism is by no means 

an unmixed good. 

CHINESE BUDDHISM. 

The influence of Buddhism in China is still great, 
though not as extensive as formerly, owing to the loss of 
the patronage of the emperors ; but it exists in a consider- 
ably modified form. " The worship of Pu-sah,' 7 says Dr. 
Beal, " in the houses of the rich and poor, is hardly 
recognised as Buddhist in its origin ; and, indeed, the 
very term Pu-sah, which is the Chinese form of Bodhi- 
satva, is explained as of native origin, and signifying 
c universal benevolence,' whilst the objects of Buddhist 
worship, such as the Goddess of Mercy and the Queen of 
Heaven, have been placed among the number of their 
genii." Also the images of Pu-sah are to be found in 
the houses of many officials and others who would deny 
that they were Buddhists. 

Chinese Buddhism dates from a.d. 61, when the Em- 
peror Ming-ti is said to have had a dream in which he 
introduction saw a golden figure of a god hovering over 
of Buddhism his palace. He inquired of one of his ministers 
to china. w j 1 ^ ^ s cou l(j mean, and was told that a 
divine person named Buddha had been born in the West, 
and that his dream was probably connected with him. 
The emperor in consequence sent a mission to India to 
obtain books and news concerning this person. They 



MYTHICAL DETAILS. 219 

returned in a.d. 67, with two Buddhist monks, together 
with various books, pictures, and relics. The emperor 
listened to them readily, and had a temple built for 
them in his capital Loyang (now Honan-fu). The narra- 
tive of these events includes various miracles worked by 
the Buddhists in proof of their religion. 

The short life of Buddha which these priests introduced 
and translated into Chinese is of special interest, for, as 
we have seen, no separate life of Buddha exists ciimese life 
in the southern canon. In the Chinese life he of Buddiia. 
is generally termed Sakyamuni, the Sakya sage, and his 
proper name, Gautama, is scarcely mentioned. This title, 
Sakyamuni, seems to have been more acceptable to the 
northern Buddhists, because of the belief that the name 
Sakya was like that of a prominent Central Asian 
people, the Sacse or Scythians ; and this name has been 
adopted as the title of the Chinese Buddhists (Shih-kian 
or Shih-tsen). 

It would be most interesting, if we had space, to give 
an account of the life of Buddha as depicted in Chinese 
books. Previous Buddhas, appearing through Mythical 
enormously long ages, are named ; and the details. 
Buddha of the present age (Sakyamuni) is said to have 
gone through a number of stages of elevation in previous 
ages. At last, in the age immediately before the present 
one, Sakya became a Bodhi-satva, was born in the Tushita 
heaven, and finally descended to earth on a white ele- 
phant with six tusks. The narratives which follow, while 
explicable as consistent w T ith the life we have already 
given, are. overlaid with much exaggeration and myth. 
The life is arranged so as to explain the origin and 
scenes of the very numerous books of the northern canon. 
Thus at one time Sakya is instructing the Bodhi-satvas ; 
at another he is in the heavens of the Hindu gods, teach- 
ing Indra, Yama, etc. All this serves as a scene for the 
development of the Bodhi-satva mythology. After long 
abstinence and meditation, and severe temptation by the 
king of the Maras, Sakyamuni became a perfect Buddha 
(i.e., in Chinese phrase, from being Pu-sa became Fo). 
In order to convey the truth to men simply, and as they 



220 MODERN BUDDHISM. 

could receive it, he assumed the guise of an ascetic, 
preached the four primary truths, established the order 
of monks, and sent them out to propagate his doctrine. 
He is afterwards said to have subdued a fierce snake and 
to have made him take the vows of the order ; to have 
resisted the fiercest temptations of the king of the Maras, 
and to have gone to the Tushita heaven to instruct his 
mother Maya. Then followed the reception of his son 
Rahula and other boys as novices, the admission of 
women, the establishment of discipline, etc. Sakya is 
said to have gone to Ceylon himself, to have visited the 
middle heavens, to have secured the gods (devas) as 
protectors of his doctrine, to have sent Visvakarma and 
fifteen daughters of devas to be the patrons of China. 
He instituted the daily service and ordained honour for 
his books. In his last days he gave forth his most 
perfect works, u The Lotus of the Good Law" and 
u Nirvana," intended to make his disciples long for higher 
attainments. This was his meaning, say the Chinese 
Buddhist authors, when he said, "I am not to be de- 
stroyed, but shall be constantly on the mountain of 
instruction." Buddha, entering Nirvana, is not dead, 
but lives in his teaching. Before his death he is said to 
have had presented to him images of himself of gold and 
sandal-wood, which he consecrated, giving his disciples 
in charge to them. At this time also he forbade the 
eating of animal food. His death and cremation were 
attended by marvels too numerous to mention. 

In the Chinese records we are introduced to a long 
series of Buddhist patriarchs, the successive chiefs and 
defenders of Buddhist law and discipline, each selected 
Buddhist by the last patriarch, the first being Maha 
patriarchs. Kashiapa, appointed by Buddha. A patriarch, 
says Dr. Edkins, is represented as " one who does not 
look at evil and dislike it ; nor does he, when he sees that 
which is good, make a strong effort to attain it. He does 
not put wisdom aside and approach folly ; nor does he 
fling aw^ay delusion and aim at comprehending truth. 
Yet he has an acquaintance with great truths which is 
beyond being measured, and he penetrates into Buddha's 



OPPOSITION OF CONFUCIANISTS. 221 

mind to a depth that cannot be fathomed. " Such an one 
had magical powers, could fly through the air, go into 
trances, and penetrate men's thoughts. Nevertheless he 
lived poorly, and was meanly clad. Thirty-three of these 
are named, including five Chinese patriarchs, and their 
biography is given. 

From the foundation of Chinese Buddhism a succession 
of western Buddhist monks and learned men came to 
China and undertook great labours of translation and 
preaching to propagate their doctrines. In the The 
fourth century the Chinese were entering the B ^ooks St 
Order by permission of a Chow prince, many translated, 
pagodas were erected in Loyang, and considerable mon- 
asteries were built in North China. Many of the Bud- 
dhist teachers professed to work miracles, and certainly 
dealt in magic. Chinese Buddhist pilgrims visited India 
and other Buddhist countries, and brought back accounts 
of marvels they had seen (as, for instance, Fa-hien and 
Huen-siang). Early in the fifth century Kumarajiva, an 
Indian Buddhist, assisted by eight hundred priests, pro- 
duced a new translation of the Buddhist books into 
Chinese, extending to three hundred volumes. 

After this time the rulers of China became for a time 
hostile to Buddhism ; but this was soon reversed, and 
there was much intercourse between Buddhist princes in 
India and China. Monasteries and temples opposition 
multiplied, and magic and wonders, as fostered of 

by the books of the Greater Vehicle, overlaid Coilfucianists - 
the original faith. At various times Chinese emperors, 
followed by their people, combined more or less of 
Confucianism and Taoism with Buddhism, and seldom 
prohibited any of them. At various periods the Con- 
fucianists sought to put down the Buddhists, to make 
the monks and nuns marry, etc., and decrees were pro- 
mulgated against them ; and sometimes their property 
was confiscated and they were compelled to return to 
secular life. Side by side with religious changes, Hindu 
Buddhists introduced many improvements in Chinese 
orthography, science, and literature. 

The twenty-eighth Indian Buddhist patriarch, Bodhid- 



222 MODERN BUDDHISM. 

harma, visited China in the sixth century, and died there. 

„ , . , He exalted meditation at the expense of read- 

Bodhidharma. • i 1 i 1 1 i n • -j 

mg and book knowledge, allowing no merit 

either to these or to the building of temples. In his view 
true merit consisted in " purity and enlightenment, depth 
and completeness, and in being wrapped in thought while 
surrounded by vacancy and stillness. " His influence in 
China, where he died, was powerful enough to make his 
followers a distinct sect of contemplatists, as contrasted 
with the ascetics and the ordinary temple-monks. His sect 
gradually became the most influential; and it appears 
to have distinctly weakened the looking for a future life 
and retribution, by exalting self-reform as to be brought 
about solely by inward contemplation. Not long after 
his death a monk of Tien-tai, named Chi-kai, invented 
a system which combined contemplation with image- 
worship, and it gradually gained great popularity, his 
books being after some centuries reckoned among the 
classics of Chinese Buddhism. 

The history of Chinese Buddhism in the middle ages 
presents a continual series of assaults by Confucianists, 
alternate persecutions and support by emperors, and 
frequent interference. Certain temples were destroyed 
and others exalted ; certain monasteries and temples were 
transferred from one kind of worship to another, from 
one sect of Buddhists to another; and all the time the 
emperors did not ostensibly become Buddhists. The 
The Mongol Mongol emperors, however, especially Kublai 
emperors. Khan, became decided Buddhists, and used the 
Chinese imperial temples for Buddhist worship. Towards 
the end of the thirteenth century a census stated that 
there were over 42,000 Buddhist temples and 213,000 
monks in China, which implies a very great number of 
lay adherents. After the fall of the Mongols some 
restrictions were gradually imposed on the Buddhists ; 

Modern an d the Sacred Edict, issued in 1662, and 
discourage- still read periodically in public, blames them 

ments. £ Qr fixing their attention on their individual 
minds alone, and for inventing baseless tales about future 
happiness and misery. Thus Buddhism is officially dis- 



PRESENT STATE. 



223 



countenanced, although in Mongolia and Tibet the Chinese 
encourage and pay deference to it; and in China itself 
the worship and festivals continue to be very largely 
attended, although the building of new temples has to 
a large extent fallen off. 

Chinese Buddhism at the present day is so extensive 




TWO OP THE GUARDIANS OF BUDDHA. KUSHAN MONASTER!', NEAR FOO-CHOW. 

and varied that it is only possible to glance at its leading 
features. In many ways it occupies much the Present 
same standpoint as in Tibet ; and the Chinese state - 
monk takes refuge in Buddha, the Law, and the Order, 
like his Singhalese brother. The worship of Buddha still 



224 MODERN BUDDHISM. 

remains, in a considerably materialised form ; but image- 
worship is by no means held to be essential by instructed 
Buddhists, though it is allowed by them for the ignorant 
and weak. But added to this worship is that of a great 
number of associated and inferior beings, making Chinese 
Buddhism at present practically a complex polytheism. 
Its public attitude may be gathered from an account of 
the temples and services. 

Looking south, like so many Chinese buildings, the 
temples of the Chinese Buddhists consist of a series of 
halls, the vestibule being guarded by the same 
four great kings mentioned at p. 213, carved 
in wood, and dressed and equipped with various symbols, 
such as a sword, an umbrella, a snake, or some other 
object with a well-defined significance to Orientals. They 
give all kinds of blessings to true Buddhists, and with- 
draw their favour from kings and nations which neglect 
the truth. Maitreya (Mi-li Fo) also appears in the same 
entrance-hall ; sometimes even Confucius has an image 
here, as protector of the Buddhist religion. 

The great hall opening from the entrance-hall contains 
the images of Buddha, the Six Bodhi-satvas, Ananda, and 

images many saints, in various symbolical attitudes, 
in tiie hails. "Wen-shu and Pu-hien often being placed right 
and left of Buddha, while Kwan-yin is behind them 
looking northward. Sometimes Buddha is alone in front, 
and the other three are in a row behind him. Kwan-yin 
appears in numerous forms in pictures and sculptures ; 
in one he is represented by a female figure presenting 
an infant to mothers praying for children. Other halls 
may be added to the principal ones, containing statues, 
sculptured scenes, and pictures. The large central hall, 
according to Dr. Edkins, is intended to symbolise Buddha 
giving instruction to an assembly of disciples, while the 
leading idea of the entrance-hall is to show the powerful 
protection by celestial beings which Buddhists enjoy. 
All this is in agreement with the narratives in the 
" Greater Vehicle. 77 There may be many subordinate 
chapels, dedicated to Bodhi-satvas and other beings of 
Buddhist, Hindu, and Chinese mythology. The images 



K WAN- YIN. 225 

of the Pu-sa or Bocllii-satvas stand when in the presence 
of Buddha, but sit when in their own shrines. Even 
the Taoist images are admitted into the all-comprehend- 
ing Buddhist temples, as well as those of celebrated 
Chinese Buddhists. 

In North China, especially at Pekin, it is customary, 
whether the images are of brass, iron, wood, or clay, to 
make them with internal organs as complete Realism of 
as possible, according to Chinese notions, which images. 
are not very correct ; but the heads are always empty. 
Surrounding the abdominal organs is a large piece of 
silk covered with praj'ers or charms, while within it are 
bags containing small pieces of gold, silver, and pearls, 
and the five chief kinds of grain ; but many of these 
valuables have been stolen from the images. 

While the more intellectual Buddhists explain their 
temples and images as purely symbolical, and their offer- 
ings, bowings, etc., as expressing reverential 
reception of Buddha's teaching, the common wan_ y in - 
people regard the images as deities, and pray to them 
for deliverance from sickness, sufferings, childlessness. 
poverty, etc. Kwan-yin is very exclusively worshipped, 
being commonly known as the goddess of mercy, who 
hears the cries of men. This worship is always associated 
with that of Amitabha (O-nie-to), the father of Kwan-yin, 
and they are believed to dwell in the happy (western) 
land of Sukhavati. Those born in this paradise have 
only unmixed joys, of which gorgeous descriptions are 
given. This heaven has taken a strong hold of the 
imagination of Chinese Buddhists, and they will repeat 
the name "Amita Budclh'"' incessantly, while counting 
their beads. It is possible, and is strongly held by some, 
that some of the ideas of this worship, especiallj- of the 
Litany of Kwan-yin, were derived from Persian, Arab, 
and Jewish sources. It is a wide-spread belief that 
Kwan-yin. moved by infinite compassion, has promised 
to become manifest in all the innumerable worlds, to 
save their inhabitants. He also visited all the hells for 
this purpose : and detailed accounts of his visits and their 
beneficial results are given. There are special elaborate 



226 MODERN BUDDHISM. 

services in which Kwan-yin is worshipped and invoked, 
while at the same time Buddha and the other Bodhi- 
satvas are duly honoured. One prayer runs thus : " May 
the all-seeing and all-powerful Kwan-yin, in virtue of her 
vow, come hither to us as we recite the sentences and 
remove from us the three obstacles (of impure thought, 
word, and deed)." Professor Beal gives the following 
translation from the Chinese of the confession or " act of 
faith " in Kwan-yin : — 

"All hail, good, compassionate Kwan-yin! 
Though I were thrown on the Mountain of Knives, 
They should not hurt me ; 
Though cast into the lake of fire, 
It should not burn me ; 
Though surrounded by famished ghosts, 
They should not touch me ; 
Though exposed to the power of devils. 
They should not reach me ; 
Though changed into a beast, 
Yet should I rise to heaven. 
All hail, compassionate Kwan-yin.' ' 

Incense is burnt, flowers and food are offered, and invoca- 
tions are repeated again and again to Kwan-yin and 
Amitabha, with appropriate readings from the sacred 
books, some of them in Sanskrit and unintelligible alike 
to priests and people, but supposed to have a magic effect. 
The distinctive worship of Amitabha is practised 
1 a a * by many, both in China and Japan; they are 
called the "pure land" sect, who rely on Amitabha to 
effect their entrance to the bright paradise. The mere 
repetition of the name with concentrated and undivided 
attention is believed to ensure paradise ; he is also in- 
voked by the form 4 ' Praise to Amita Buddha," and the 
most extravagant promises are made to those who rightly 
invoke him. This is the prevailing form of Buddhist 
worship in many parts of China, and it is very popular 
owing to its putting out of sight Nirvana and presenting 
a heaven of conscious happiness and joy to the believer. 

At the temple Pi-yun-si, west of Pekin, there is a hall 
of 500 departed saints, arrayed in six parallel galleries ; 
the figures are of clay, full-sized, and seated. In another 



TEMPLE OF FIVE HUNDRED GODS, CANTON. 



217 




223 MODERN BUDDHISM. 

court are scenes from the imagined future state, all 
HaUsof500 modelled in clay, showing the fate both of the 
saints, good and the evil. These halls are in addition to 
the usual elaborate series of hails. Pagodas also form part 
of this great establishment. Similar halls are numerous 
in the Tien-tai district. 

Music is much used in Chinese Buddhist worship, the 
instruments including drums, small and large bells, 
cymbals, and various metal forms struck by clappers 
which have no analogy in western music. 

Dr. Edkins admits that while the populace believe in 
the extravagant details of mythology or magic, the priests 
in the services still read the old passages from the Bud- 
dhist books which teach the nothingness of everything ; 
so that, if fully exposed, the most utter contrasts would 
be found in any of their services. 

One of the most famous Buddhist regions of China is 
Tien-tai, a cluster of hills 180 miles south-east of Hang- 

_. . cheu. It came into note through Chi-kai, who 
in the sixth century founded his school of con- 
templative Buddhism there, imagining its grand natural 
scenery to be the residence of the great saints of Bud- 
dhism, the Arhats or Lohans ; indeed, he heard them 
sing near the remarkable rock bridge over a cataract, and 
now they are represented by five hundred small stone 
figures at the side of the bridge. Here Chi-kai developed 
an elaborate comment on and development of Buddhism, 
which he called " perfected observation.' 7 He explained 
everything as an embodiment of Buddha, subtly getting 
rid of all the objects of popular belief. He taught his 
followers various forms of meditation, which his followers 
have maintained, while not entirely condemning popular 
belief, nor going to the extreme of Buddhist agnosticism. 
At the present day monasteries are to be found five miles 
apart throughout the Tien-tai hill country. 

Besides this there are numerous important " schools " 
Schools of °f Chinese Buddhism, named from prominent 

Chinese teachers, from whom the present heads of 

u ism. m0 nasteries claim continuous succession. Their 
doctrines for the most part do not differ widely from one 



MONASTERIES AND MONKS. 229 

another, but great importance is attached to minutiae. 
The Lin-tsi school was founded by a teacher . 

who died in 868, and had a great reputation 
for magical powers ; it is now very widely spread in 
China and in Japan. It teaches that Buddha is within 
the believer if he only be recognised. " "What is Buddha? 
A mind pure and at rest. What is the law ? A mind 
clear and enlightened. "What is Tao ? In every place 
absence of impediments and pure enlightenment. These 
three are one. ? ' Discipline is strictly maintained by 
means of three blows with the hand or with the cane, 
three successive reproofs, and the alternation of speech 
with silence. We cannot particularise the other varied 
schools of Chinese Buddhism, but they are as numerous 
as the principal dissenting bodies in England. 

The monasteries need not be particularly described, 
after what we have said of Buddhist monasteries in other 
countries. They all have a temple or worship- Monasteries 
hall attached. Most of the larger establishments and monks, 
own land or other property, but not often sufficient for 
all expenses, which are met by mendicant expeditions, 
the offerings of worshippers, and voluntary presents sent 
to them. The procession of monks walks through the 
streets to receive alms beating a gong or C3 r mbal at inter- 
vals, and often reciting Buddhist formulse. The monks 
dross very differently from the Chinese people. In offici- 
ating they usually wear yellow garments of silk or cotton, 
with a wide turn-down collar and huge sleeves ; at other 
times their clothes are mostly of an ashy grey. Their 
heads are closely shaven two or three times a month, 
and many have one or more places on the scalp burnt 
with red-hot coals. Their celibacy appears to be strict, 
and they do not own any relationships in the outside 
world, and show very little sociability in their intercourse 
with the people. They spend much of their time in 
chanting their sacred books, mostly in a form which 
represents the sound without the sense of the Hindu or 
Tibetan originals. Some monasteries keep their large 
bells constantly tolled day and night, so that the sound 
never ceases. 



MODERN BUDDHISM. 



A large monastery lias numerous rooms devoted to 
specific uses, including a library, study, reception-rooms 
for distinguished guests, and a place for keeping living 
animals, not for food, but as a work of merit. Sometimes 
there is a fish-pond full of fine fish which must not be 
caught or eaten. Special provision is made for cattle, 
swine, goats, fowls, etc., many being deposited by lay 
people in fulfilment of a vow, together with money or 
grain to support them until their death. The monks pro- 
fessedly refuse all animal food, 
but it is believed that some 
transgress. On the whole, the 
mass of the Chinese do not 
highly reverence the Buddhist 
monks, because they transgress 
the principles of filial obedience 
so deeply rooted among them; 
but they are nevertheless much 
employed to conduct private 
religious ceremonies, whether 
on behalf of recently deceased 
persons, those suffering in hells, 
or the sick and infirm. Fre- 
quently the succession of no- 
vices in the monasteries is 
kept up by the purchase of 
boys from their parents. 

"Within the monastery ranks 
there are frequently ascetics 
who for years together have 
no intercourse with the out- 
side world, but sit in constant silent meditation in their 
cells, receiving their food through a hole in 
the door. Usually the bodies of deceased monks 
are burned in a special cremation-building, the ashes and 
unconsumed bones being afterwards collected and de- 
posited, in an earthen vessel, in a special room or building 
of the monastery. 

There are numerous Buddhist nunneries in China, under 
the especial patronage of Kwan-yin, and while many join 




BUDDHIST NUN, WITH CAP AND 
KOSARY. 



Ascetics. 



BUDDHIST CALENDAR. 231 

them of their own accord, others are bought when 
young girls. The nuns shave the whole head 
like the men, do not compress their feet, and 
wear a very similar costume to the monks. Some learn 
to read the Buddhist books, and attend upon those who 
worship at the temples. They also visit the sick and 
afflicted, and pay special attention to those who place 
themselves under their spiritual care. Although they 
have taken a vow of celibacy, the nuns are generally ac- 
cused of breaking it, as in Tibet ; and in some districts the 
Chinese officials have closed all nunneries for this reason. 

While Buddhism is not ardently believed in by a large 
proportion of the Chinese, it is undoubtedly regarded 
with considerable respect ; and its formulae and Popular 
practices, especially those which are magical, aspect, 
are largely resorted to as a matter of precaution. AVords 
not understood by the people are continually repeated by 
them with some sort of belief in their efficacy in over- 
coming evil influences. The workman will burn his paper 
with the charm written on it before beginning his morn- 
ing's work ; while the man of learning, who professes to 
despise Buddhism, knows by heart the magical sentences 
of the Ling-yen-king, or Heart Sutra. 

The Buddhist calendar includes a very complete set 
of festivals and processions, though they are not made 
the occasion for such display as in Burmah. Buddhist 
The emperors' and empress's birthday, the calendar, 
anniversaries of emperors' deaths, and the four monthly 
feasts are, of course, kept. Then there are days for wor- 
shipping the devas of the older Hindu mythology, for 
eclipses of- the sun and moon (addressed as Pu-sahs or 
Bodhi-satvas, the power of Buddha being invoked to 
deliver them), for sacrifice to the moon, and praying for 
fine weather or rain. The Deva Wei-to (really the Veda) 
is invoked as protector, and his birthday is kept, as also 
the birthdays of three other divine protectors, including 
the god of war, of Buddha, and each Bodhi-satva, the 
anniversaries of the death of the chief Chinese Buddhist 
saints, and of the founder of a monastery, etc. But this 
list might easily be lengthened, 



232 MODERN BUDDHISM. 

Independent of its professors, Buddhism has exerted 

a great influence in tempering the character of Chinese 

influence of religion. The discountenancing of sacrifices, 

Buddhism in the tenderness to animal life, the conception 

cmna. Q £ a S pi r it n al aim in religion, and of self-dis- 
cipline as of supreme importance, have not been without 
far-reaching effect on the Chinese. The example of 
Buddha as beneficently desirous of being born in the 
world to save it, his patience and self-sacrifice in his 
successive lives, his teaching of the noble path and the 
desirability of freedom from the fetters of this life have 
all tended to elevate the popular faiths. A more doubtful 
influence of Buddhism has been the popularisation of 
beliefs in material hells. A great variety of tortures and 
circumstances of punishment are described, and the 
demons are represented as delighting in human sufferings. 
On the one hand it is alleged that the beliefs on the 
whole have tended to discourage the crimes that are said 
to be visited with such punishments, on the other, that 
the popular mind is thereby familiarised with pictures 
and descriptions of horrible cruelties. 

The tolerance inculcated by Buddhism, too, has tad 
its effect in spreading a considerable indifference to 
religion in China, while on the other hand it has favoured 
its own existence. But the extent of mutual concession 
and accommodation to be found among the Chinese in 
religious as well as other matters is a very pleasing feature, 
when it does not signify lifelessness or mere indifference. 
The Buddhists too deserve credit, for their representations 
of Buddhas and Boclhi-satvas are pre-eminently merciful, 
although their objection to suffering as an evil loses sight of 
its medical and beneficial influence. Buddhism, too, has in 
China acquired more regard for filial duty than elsewhere. 

We may also note how greatly Buddhism has con- 
tributed to the artistic and literary development of the 
Chinese. The pagoda form is theirs especially. It is 
derived from the Indian tope or dagoba ; the base or 
platform signifies the earth, the semicircular building 
covering it the air, and the railing above, the heaven ; 
the spire and umbrellas above have been expanded into 



TEMPLE OF THE HUNDRED PAGODAS. 233 




234 MODERN BUDDHISM. 

successive storeys or platforms, representing the successive 
worlds above the heavens. In many cases, however, the 
Chinese pagodas have no religious significance, and only 
relate to the popular geomancy by which luck is deter- 
mined. Those which contain Buddhist relics are always 
connected with monasteries. Some are of brick, others 
of porcelain, others of cast iron. Many are now falling 
to ruin, and few are now built. Flower cultivation is 
another artistic feature in China and Japan which has 
a connection with the Buddhist flower offerings ; many 
beautiful flowers are grown in the temple and monastery 
gardens for use as offerings and in decorations. 

We must not conclude this account of Chinese Buddhism 
without calling attention to an interesting sect of reformed 

The do- Buddhists who have spread considerably since 
nothing sect, the beginning of the sixteenth century in the 
lower ranks of the Chinese, known as the Wu-wei-kian, 
or " Do-nothing sect." They oppose all image-worship, 
but believe in Buddha without worshipping him. They 
meet in plain buildings with no images, and containing 
only an ordinary Chinese tablet dedicated to heaven, 
earth, king, parents and teachers, as signifying the fit 
objects for reverence. They enjoin the cultivation of 
virtue by meditation alone, and inward reverence for the 
all-pervading Buddha, who is within man and in all 
nature. Their founder, Lo Hwei-neng took the title Lo- 
tsu (the patriarch Lo) ; on the anniversaries of his birth 
and death, the new year, and in the middle of the eighth 
month, they meet to drink tea and eat bread together. 
They are strict vegetarians, believing strongly in metem- 
psychosis and the consequent sin of taking animal life. 
They have no order of monks or of priests. Matter they 
regard as perishable, and believe that at the end of the 
world they will be taken to heaven by Kin-mu, the 
golden mother, whom they regard as the mother of the 
soul. She is indeed more an object of worship by this 
sect than Buddha, being regarded as a protectress from 
calamities and sickness, and from the miseries of the 
unseen world. So far have the Taoist notions invaded 
even this pure form of Buddhism. 



BUDDHIST CEREMONY, JAPAN. 




EUPDHIST CEREMONY, JAPAN. 



236 MODERN BUDDHISM. 

JAPANESE BUDDHISM, 

Buddhism found its way to Japan in the sixth century 
a.d. both from China and from Corea, but gained no great 
influence until the ninth, when the priest Kukai, or Kobo 
Daishi, showed how to adapt Shintoism to Buddhism by 
asserting that the Shinto deities were transmigrations of 
the Buddhistic ones. Thus explained, Buddhism gained 
great ascendency. In the seventeenth century a philo- 
sophical awakening took place, under which every man 
was taught to long for perfection, to believe in successive 
transmigrations of soul-;, and to look forward to the perfect 
reward of absorption into Buddha. A very great number 
of Buddhist shrines and temples exist, vastly more ornate 
and wealthy than those of the Shinto, containing images 
of extraordinary variety for adoration, supporting till 
lately a numerous priesthood, who took care to attract 
the people in every possible way, by spectacles, games, 
lotteries, and even shooting galleries. The recent revolu- 
tion, however, has been attended with a great spoliation 
of Buddhism, suppression of temples and monasteries, 
melting of bells for coinage, etc. ; and the religion now 
only exists on sufferance, and has already put forth re- 
newed efforts to gain spiritual influence over the people. 

There are numerous sects, corresponding in the main 
to those of China, some being contemplative, others 

The Shin- mystic, others taking charge of the popular 
shin. ceremonies. The Shin-shin especially reverence 
Amitabha as being willing and able to save those who 
believe in him. No prayers for happiness in the present 
life are made by them, and they teach that morality is 
of equal importance with faith. They have many of the 
finest temples in Japan, and are remarkable for their 
active missionary work in China and Corea, and for the 
high standard of education they maintain. The priests 
are allowed to marry and to eat meat. The creed of the 
sect, as stated by one of its principal teachers, is as 
follows : 

" Rejecting all religious austerities and other action, 
giving up all idea of self-power, we rely upon Amita 



THE SHIN-SHIN, 



237 



Buddha with the whole heart for our salvation in the 
future life, which is the most important thing, believing 
that at the moment of putting our faith in Amita Buddha 
our salvation is settled. From that moment invocation 
of his name is observed as an expression of gratitude 
and thankfulness for Buddha's mercy. Moreover, being 
thankful for the reception of this doctrine from the 
founder and succeeding chief priests whose teachings 
were so benevolent, and as welcome as light in a dark 
night, w T e must also keep the laws which are fixed for 
our duty during our whole life." 





JAIN EMBLEMS. 



CHAPTER X. 

S&tnfcm* 

Jainism and Buddhism— Mahavira— Jain beliefs -Temples at Palitana— 
Mount Abu— Parasnath— The Yatis. 

THE Jains are at the present clay an important body 
of religionists in India, more for their wealth and 
influence than their numbers. It is said that half the 
mercantile transactions of India pass through their hands 
as merchants and bankers, largely in the north and 
west of India, and in smaller numbers throughout the 
Jainism and southern peninsula. Till comparatively re- 
Buddhism, cently they were believed to be quite a 
modern sect of Hindus, at any rate not much more 
than a thousand years old. But the careful researches 
of several eminent scholars have led them to the belief 

238 



JAIN ISM AND BUDDHISM. 239 

that Jainism is coeval with, if not slightly older than, 
Buddhism, and took its rise in the same development 
of Brahman asceticism and reaction from Brahmanical 
tyranny. We cannot enter into the details of the dis- 
cussion, but shall simply take this view as supported by 
the best authority, Prof. Jacobi. 

There are some resemblances between Buddhism and 
Jainism which do not necessarily show that the one is 
derived from the other, but rather that they took their 
rise in the same age or during the same intellectual 
period. Buddhism proved the more adaptable and ap- 
pealed to more widespread sympathies, and surpassed and 
overshadowed Jainism; but the latter, less corrupted, 
and more characterised by charitable actions, has survived 
in India, while the former is extinct. We find similar 
titles given to the saints or prophets in both, such as 
Tathagata, Buddha, Mahavira, Arhat, etc. ; but one set 
of titles is more frequently used by the one, another by 
the other ; and it is noteworthy that the word Tirthan- 
kara, describing a prophet of the Jains, is used in the 
Buddhist scriptures for the founder of an heretical sect. 
Both lay great stress on not killing living creatures ; 
both worship their prophets and other saints, and have 
statues of them in their temples ; both believe in enor- 
mous periods of time previous to the present age. The 
rejection of the divine authority of the Vedas and of 
the sway of the Brahmans is also common to the two. 
There is further almost an identity between the five 
vows of the Jain ascetics and those of the Buddhist 
monks : namely not to destroy life, not to lie, not to 
take that which is not given, to live a life of purity, 
and to renounce all worldly things (the last being much 
more comprehensive than the corresponding Buddhist 
vow) ; but it appears that the first four were equally 
the vows of the Brahman ascetics. There are other 
points in the life of the Jain monks which agree sub- 
stantially with rules laid down for the Brahman ascetics. 

Vardhamana, or Mahavira (his name as a Jain prophet), 
the great founder of Jainism, figures in their Kalpa Sutra 
as the twenty-fourth prophet, and appears to have been 



240 JAINISM. 

a younger son of Siddhartha, a Khsatriya noble or 
Mahavira. c ^ e ^ °^ Kundagramma, not far from Vesali, 
already mentioned in our account of Buddhism, 
and the wife of Siddhartha, was sister of the king of 
Vesali, and related to the king of Magadha. At the age 
of twenty-eight Mahavira became an ascetic, and spent 
twelve years in self -mortification. After that period he 
became recognised as a prophet and saint, or Tirthankara 
(meaning conqueror or leader of a school of thought), 
and spent the remaining thirty years of his life in teach- 
ing and in organising his order of ascetics, mostly within 
the kingdom of Magadha, but also travelling to Sravasti 
and the foot of the Himalayas. Mahavira is referred to 
in the Buddhist books under his well-known name JSTata- 
putta, as the head of the rival sect of Niganthas, or 
Jains, and several contemporaries are referred to in the 
books of both religions. We may put down Mahavira's 
date as about the fifth and sixth centuries B.C., but the 
earliest extant works of the Jains do not go beyond the 
third century, and were not reduced to writing till the 
fifth or sixth century a.d. It is very doubtful how far 
Mahavira is indebted to Parsva, his predecessor, accord- 
ing to the Kalpa Sutra, by about two centuries. The 
lives of the earlier Jains, like those of the predecessors 
of Gautama, are altogether mythical. Adinath is the 
earliest of them. 

The life of Mahavira, as related in the Kalpa Sutra, 
contains but few details, and is very far from having the 
interest of that of his great contemporary. He is declared 
to have torn out his hair on entering the ascetic life, to 
have gone naked for eleven years, and to have abandoned 
all care of his body. All perfections of circumspect con- 
duct and self-restraint are attributed to him. He at last 
reached the highest knowledge, unobstructed and full, so 
as to become omniscient. At his death he became a 
Buddha, a Mukta (a liberated soul), putting an end to 
all misery, finally liberated, freed from all pains. 

" Mahavira,' 7 says Professor Jacobi, " was of the ordinary 
class of religious men in India. He may be allowed a 
talent for religious matters, but he possessed not the 



JAIN BELIEFS. 241 

genius which Buddha undoubtedly had. The Buddha's 
philosophy forms a system based on a few fundamental 
ideas, whilst that of Mahavira scarcely forms a system, 
but is merely a sum of opinions on various subjects/ 7 
The matter of the Jain works yet translated is so inferior 
to that of the Buddhist scriptures that we shall not make 
any extracts from them. 

The Jains believe in a Nirvana, consisting in the 
delivery of the soul from the necessity for transmigra- 
tion ; and they do not look for an absorption . 
of the soul into the universal Soul. In fact 
they do not teach anything about a supreme deity. 
Eight perception, clear knowledge, followed by super- 
natural knowledge, leading to omniscience, were the 
stages of progress to Nirvana. The space occupied by 
each of the perfected ones who have attained Nirvana 
is stated to be boundless, increasing according to their 
desire. Their parts are said to be innumerable, and 
there is no returning again to a worldly state, and no 
interruption to that bliss. Their term of existence is 
infinite, and they exercise themselves in the highest 
philosophy. Believers must also practise liberality, 
gentleness, piety, and sorrow for faults, and kindness 
to animals and even to plants. This last the Jains 
exhibit in the present day by an extreme unwillingness 
to injure living creatures. They believe all animals and 
plants (and even the smallest particles of the elements) 
have souls, and they spend much money in maintaining 
hospitals for sick animals. They will not eat in the open 
air during rain or after dark, for fear of swallowing a 
fly or insect ; they strain water three times before drink- 
ing it, and will not walk against the wind for fear that 
it should blow insects into the mouth. The strict devotees 
carry a brush to sweep insects out of the way when they 
sit down, and a mouth-cloth to cover the mouth when 
they are engaged in prayer. In strictness the Jains 
disregard Vedas, gods, and caste ; but practically they 
yield considerably to caste regulations, they pay some 
devotion to many of the Hindu deities and have a 
numerous list of good and bad spirits of their own, and 



242 JAINISM. 

tliey appeal to the Vedas as of considerable authority 
when they support their views. Now-a-days the pecu- 
liarity of nakedness is only retained by the ascetics 
among the Digambaras (sky-clad ones), and then only 
at meal-times. The Svetambaras, the other sect of the 
Jains, are white-robed and completely clad. They have 
no sacrifices, and practise a strict morality. Many of 
their beliefs are common to Brahman and Buddhist 
philosophies, such as that re-births are determined by 
conduct in previous states of existence. 

The Jains possess some of the most remarkable places 
of pilgrimage in India, situated in the midst of most 
Temples at lovely mountain scenery. At Palitana, in Kath- 
Paiitana. iawar, is the temple-covered hill of Satrunjaya, 
the most sacred of the pilgrim-resorts of the Jains ; and 
Jains from all parts of India desire to erect temples 
upon it. Many of them are very small buildings only 
about three feet square, covering impressions of the soles 
of two feet marked with Jain emblems, and sacred to 
Mahavira. The larger temples have considerable marble 
halls with columns and towers, and plenty of openings, 
unlike Hindu temples ; the marble floors have beautiful 
tesselated patterns. In the shrine, on a pedestal, are 
large figures of Mahavira, sitting with feet crossed in 
front, like those of Buddha. Often on the brow and 
breast are five brilliants, and gold plates adorn many 
parts of the body. The eyes are of silver overlaid with 
pieces of grass, and projecting very far, so as to stare 
very prominently. The larger temples, says Fergusson 
(" History of Indian Architecture"), " are situated in hiks, 
or separate enclosures, surrounded by high fortified walls; 
the smaller ones line the silent streets. A few yatis^ or 
priests, sleep in the temples, and perform the daily 
services, and a few attendants are constantly there to 
keep the place clean or to feed the sacred pigeons, who 
are the sole denizens of the spot ; but there are no 
human habitations, properly so called, within the walls. 
The pilgrim or the stranger ascends in the morning, 
and returns when he has performed his devotions or 
satisfied his curiosity. He must not eat, or at least must 



JAIN TEMPLE OF ADINATH, GWALIOR. 



241 



not cook his food on the sacred hill, and he must not 
sleep there. It is a city of the gods, and meant for them 
only, and not intended for the use of mortals." Some 




of the temples date from the eleventh century, but the 
majority have been built in the present century. 
Mount Abu, in Eajputana, is another remarkable place 



244 JAINISM. 

of pilgrimage, and has been termed the Olympus of 
India. There are five temples, two of which, 

oun u ' according to Fergusson (" History of Indian 
Architecture"), are unrivalled for certain qualities by 
any temples in India. They are built wholly of white 
marble, and the more modern of the two was built 
(between 1197-1247) by the same brothers who erected a 
triple temple at Grirnar ; for minute delicacy of carving 
and beauty of detail it stands almost unrivalled. A 
simpler yet very elaborate one, erected in the eleventh 
century, is a typical example of larger Jain temples ; it 
has a central hall terminating in a pyramidal spire-like 
roof, containing a cross-legged seated figure of the deified 
saint worshipped, who in this case is Parsva, the prede- 
cessor of Mahavira. There is also a large portico sur- 
mounted by a dome, and the whole is enclosed in a large 
courtyard, surrounded by a double colonnade of pillars 
forming porticos to a range of fifty-five cells, as in 
Buddhist viharas, but each occupied by a facsimile of 
the central image, and over the door of each are sculp- 
tured scenes from the saint's life. In some Jain temples 
the image of Mahavira or other saints is repeated in an 
identical form hundreds of times, each with cells or 
niches. Remarkable skill and ingenuity have been dis- 
played in the decoration of the columns and other parts 
of the Jain temples. 

Parasnath, in Bengal, is the eastern metropolis of the 

Jains, having been the supposed scene of the entrance 

into Nirvana of ten of their twenty-four deified 

arasna . sa ^ s> j n one Y [ ew f Parasnath there are to 

be seen three tiers of temples rising one above another, 
in dazzling white stone, with fifteen shining domes, each 
with bright brass pinnacles. In style these temples differ 
from those in the West or South, and are partly derived 
from Hindu temples and partly from Mahometan mosques. 
There are no priests to perform ceremonies for the 
pilgrims ; each performs his devotion according to his 
own views. They have to pay toll to the priestly order 
before entering, and to leave some contribution to the 
repairs of the buildings. Extreme cleanliness being one 



THE YATIS. 245 

of the Jain principles, it is carried out perfectly in the 
temples, producing an effect of surpassing beauty. " On 
entering the centre and holy chamber/' says one of the 
few European visitors who have gained admission, "it 
is impossible to avoid being impressed with the simple 
beauty of the place. The pavement is composed of fine 
slabs of blue-veined marble ; and on a white marble 
pediment, opposite to the entrance, five very beautiful 
images of the Jain saints sit in dignity waiting for the 
prayers of their disciples, which are rendered more deep- 
toned by the echoing influence of the dome." Pilgrims 
visit every shrine in the holy place, a work of extreme 
labour, owing to the number of peaks ; and the pilgrimage 
is completed by a circuit round the base of the group of 
hills, a distance of something like thirty miles. 

The yatis, or ascetics, among the Jains have no absolute 
rule as to worship, being only devoted to meditation and 
abstraction from worldly affairs ; but they often 
read the Jain scriptures in the temples, while e ya 1S ' 
the ministrants, attendants, etc., in the temples are Brah- 
mans. The Jains fast and specially devote themselves 
to religious duties during a part of the rainy season (the 
Buddhist Vassa). At its commencement they are accus- 
tomed to confess their sins to an ascetic and obtain 
absolution for them. The Svetambaras are the broader 
of the two sects, taking their meals clothed and decorating 
their images, and allowing that women may attain 
Nirvana, which the Digambaras deny. 

[On Jainism see " Sacred Books of the East," vol. xxii. ; " Imperial 
Gazetteer of India;" "Statistical Account of Bengal;" "Encyclopaedia 
Britannica," Art. Jain.] 




CHAPTER XI. 

Zotmstn anH t\)t %mtr--Slbe£ta* 

The A vesta— Zend and Pahlavi— The Magi of the Bible— The Greeks and the 
Magi— Modern study by Europeans— Zoroaster— A real personage— His 
life in Eastern Iran— His date— Mythical developments— Marvels and 
miracles— Contrary opinions — The doctrines of Zoroaster— Ormuzd and 
Ahriman— Dualism— Importance attached to thoughts— Relation to early 
Aryan religion— Comparison with Vedic religion— Ahura— Zoroaster and 
the settled agriculturists— Attributes of Ormuzd— The name of Ormuzd 
—Lofty conception of the Deity— The Amesha-Spentas— The Yazatas or 
spiritual genii— Mi thra— Vayu— Sraosha— The soul of the bull— The 
powers of evil— Ahriman— The daevas and druj— The Yatus, Drvants, 
etc.— Zoroaster magnified— The universal conflict— The Fravashis— Im- 
mortality— Future rewards and punishments— The final dissolution and 
renovation. 

THE Zend-Avesta * is the popular name of the great 
religions book or collection of books of the Parsees, 
a wealthy and influential body of Indian residents (num- 
bering over 70,000) whose ancestral home was 
' Persia, but who after the seventh century, 
when the Persians were overthrown by the Mohametans, 
took refuge in "Western India and the peninsula of G-uzerat. 
Only a few thousand descendants of the old people still 
keep up the ancestral worship in Persia itself, in Yezd 
and its neighbourhood. Properly speaking, the old col- 
lection of books is the Avesta 1 Zend (or " interpretation ") 
being the name of the translation and commentary on it 

1 See " Sacred Books of the East," vols, iv., v., xviii., xxiii., xxiv., 
xxxi. " Encyclopaedia Britannica," ninth ed., articles "Persia," " Pahlavi," 
" Parsees," " Zend-Avesta," " Zoroaster." " Avesta," translated with com- 
mentary by Prof, de Harlez, second ed. Paris, 1881. " Civilisation of the 
Eastern Iranians," by Prof. Geiger, translated into English by D. P. Dastur ; 
Loudon : Henry Frowde, 1886. (G.) 

246 



THE MAGI OF THE BIBLE, 247 

in tlie Pahlavi or early Persian language. Nor is " Zend " 
strictly a correct term for the language of tlie Zend and 
A vesta ; both the book and the language in p ahiavi. 
which it is written are properly called Avesta, and there 
is no other book remaining in the language. But the 
language of the Avesta is very generally termed Zend, 
since that name has long gained currency. This language 
was that of north-eastern Iran in its wide sense, and was 
akin to Sanskrit. From it or a closely allied form the 
Iranian or Persian family of languages is derived. 

Considering how much was known by the ancient 
Hebrews and Greeks about the Zoroastrian religion, it 
is a surprising fact that little more than a The Mag-i of 
century ago Sir William Jones rejected the the Bible - 
Avesta as a modern rhapsody. The priests of this religion 
were the Magi or "wise men" of the Old and New Testa- 
ments, located in " the East" among the Chaldseans and 
Persians, and viewed by the Israelites chiefly as astrolo- 
gers, diviners, and interpreters of dreams. In Daniel xx. 
we read that the prophet and his associates were reckoned 
" ten times wiser than all the magicians and astrologers." 
How deeply this view of them impressed itself, we see 
in the fact that from their Greek name "magoi" is 
derived our generic term for all professors of enchantment 
and preternatural powers. Daniel is represented as inter- 
ceding for the Magi when condemned to death by Nebu- 
chadnezzar, and was himself appointed Master of the 
Magi ; again and again after this we find that one com- 
mon ground was recognised between the religions, both 
hating idolatry and acknowledging the "God of Heaven." 
The u wise men (Magi) from the east" of Matthew ii. 
may not have been from Persia, but the mention of them 
implies the high position they held and the respect paid 
to their persons and doings. Later references to Magi in 
the New Testament imply what was the fact, that large 
numbers of impostors had become distributed through 
the Roman empire, among whom may be mentioned 
Simon Magus and Elymas. 

The Greeks early knew about the Magi through Hero- 
dotus and other travellers and historians ; and Aristotle 



248 ZOROASTER AND THE ZEND-AVESTA. 

and other philosophers wrote about the Persian religion 
The Greeks in lost books. The Magi appear to have recom- 
andthe mended the destruction of the Greek temples 
in Xerxes' invasion. After the Greek conquest 
of Persia the name of the Magi represented a hated 
system of divination, and the religion of a conquered foe. 
Both Plato and Xenophon, however, speak of the Magi 
with respect. Philo, the great Alexandrian philosopher 
describes them as men who gave themselves to the 
worship of nature, and the contemplation of the Divine 
perfections, and as being worthy to be the counsellors 
of kings. Much literature was put forth in Greece as 
being the oracles of Zoroaster, but having very faint 
traces of his system. Throughout the middle ages, how- 
ever, no real knowledge of the ancient Persian religion 
existed in Europe. Gradually after the Renaissance the 
old knowledge was re-collected ; and travellers in Persia 
and India gathered the beliefs of the Parsees and described 
Modern study their practices. Thomas Hyde, an Oxford 
by Europeans, professor, in 1700 published the first accurate 
description of modern Parseeism ; and in 1723 Richard 
Cobbe brought to England a copy of the Vendidad, which 
was hung up by an iron chain in the Bodleian library, a 
treasure which nobody could read. More than thirty 
years later, Duperron, a young Frenchman, after years 
of persuasion and investigation, obtained from the Parsees 
of Surat both their books and the means of translating 
them, and in 1764 brought to Paris the whole of the 
Zend-Avesta ; in 1771 he published the first European 
translation. But it w^as loudly asserted that the Avesta 
was a forgery and a late concoction ; and it was not till 
the Pahlavi inscriptions of the first Sassanian emperors 
had been deciphered by De Sacy, and they in turn led 
to the reading of the Persian cuneiform inscriptions by 
Burnouf, Lassen, and Eawlinson, that it was proved 
beyond doubt that the Avesta was written in a still 
more ancient language. Zend, as it is usually called, is 
apparently derived from a common source with Sanskrit ; 
and its grammatical forms remind one of Greek and Latin 
as well as of the language of the Vedas. 



249 

ZOROASTER. 

So much, scepticism lias been displayed as to the Avesta 

that it is scarcely surprising to find that many have 

doubted the existence of any person corresponding to 

Zoroaster or Zarathushtra (in modern Persian, Zardusht), 

although they might in some cases admit that Zoroaster 

he was a mythological personage developed a real 

, n J t> , •, r . ° r , personage, 

out oi some man. But it requires very cogent 

proof to upset the unanimous voice of classical antiquity, 
which speaks of Zoroaster as a real person and the foun- 
der of the Persian religion. The period when he lived 
and the details of his life must be admitted to be doubtful; 
and his name is not mentioned in any cuneiform inscrip- 
tion yet deciphered. No doubt the Zoroaster of the later 
parts of the Avesta and of the Zend is largely mythical, 
and of these myths we must later give some account. 
But the Zoroaster of the gathas or hymns contained in 
the Yasna appears as a man, trusting in the Divine Being 
whom he worships, facing fierce opposition from without, 
crippled at times by the faintheartedness of his sup- 
porters, sometimes suffering from inward doubts and 
struggles, and again exulting in secure confidence. And 
it is less marvellous to believe in these sentiments as 
having proceeded from a man who was the founder of a 
religion than to believe they were invented long after- 
wards in the successful days of the religion, when it was 
beginning to decay. But, as in the case of Buddha and 
also of the early history of Buddha, these old Aryans 
had no notion of writing biographies. All we have 
from them is incidental information, which may be even 
more reliable, when sifted, than details professing to be 
biographical would have been in that age. 

Although his birthplace is uncertain, Zoroaster's active 
life and teaching may safety be placed, in Eastern Iran, 
possibly in Bactria. The later parts of the Avesta des- 
cribe him as teaching during the reign of His life in 
Vishtaspa, the same word as is rendered Hys- Eastern Iran, 
taspes by the Greeks ; but there is reason to believe this 
king belonged to a much earlier period than Hystaspes, 



250 ZOROASTER AND THE ZEND-AVESTA. 

the father of Darius. This king was evidently the patron 
and friend of the great religious teacher ; and his influ- 
ence greatly contributed to Zoroaster's success. Two 
brothers, Frashaoshtra and Jamaspa, the latter a minister 
of the king, were among Zoroaster's prominent supporters ; 
indeed he married their sister Hvovi. Like some other 
religious leaders, Zoroaster derived much aid from his 
relatives and their followers ; and he appears to have had 
a family of sons and daughters. The Avesta does not 
speak of his death ; but in the late Shah-Nama, or book 
of Turanian kings (13th century), it is related that he 
was murdered at the altar in the storming of Balk by 
the Turanian conquerors. Almost the only means that 
we have of indicating Zoroaster's date is the fact that 
when Cyrus reigned, in the 6th century B.C., 
a e. ^ e jy[ a gi an religion was firmly established in 
Western Iran. Various conjectures assign him elates 
between 1000 and 1400 b.c. 

Turning now to the view of Zoroaster given by the 
later parts of the Avesta, it is easy to see that he became 
invested with marvellous powers, nothing less than super- 
Mythical natural, and was in fact made part of the 
develop- Magian mythology. He is described as smiting 
merits. fi enc i s chiefly with his prayers, driving away 
Ahriman the evil spirit with huge stones which he had 
received from Ormuzd, the supreme and good god. At 
his birth the floods and trees rejoiced. Ormuzd is even 
represented as sacrificing to a spring, and praying that 
Zoroaster may be brought to think and speak and do 
according to his law. Zoroaster in fact becomes the 
supporter of Ormuzd, and drives away Ahriman and the 
fiends that try to kill him. He is a godlike champion, 
who kills the powers of evil with the word of truth or 
the sacred spell. At some far-off period a posthumous 
son will be born to him who will come from the region 
of the dawn to free the world from death and decay, 
and under his rule the dead will rise and immortality 
commence. 

Still later, in the Bundahish we have more details 
and marvels about Zoroaster, and from it a legendary 



CONTRARY OPINIONS. 251 

history of the great teacher may be compiled. During 
his early life a whole series of marvels occurred, Marvels and 
mostly protecting his life from danger. His miracles, 
early life was blameless, but it was only after he attained 
the age of thirty that his mission commenced. He ap- 
pears to have emigrated from his native country to Iran 
proper, with a few followers, and miracles were worked 
in his progress. The spirit Vohu-mano ("the good mind 7 ') 
introduces him to Ormuzd, the supreme Being ; he asks 
permission to put questions to Him, inquiring which of 
Grod's creatures is best, and receiving the answer, " He is 
the best who is pure of heart ; " and then receives in- 
struction as to the names and duties of angels and the 
nature of the evil spirit Ahriman. Various miraculous 
signs are shown to him. He sees a fiery mountain and is 
commanded to pass through the fire, but is not hurt 
thereby. Molten metal is poured into his breast with- 
out his feeling pain ; and these wonders are explained to 
him as having a mystic meaning. He then received the 
Avesta from Ormuzd and was commanded to proclaim it 
at the court of King Vishtaspa. This belief in the com- 
munication between Zoroaster and Ormuzd runs through 
the whole Avesta. In every important matter he ques- 
tions Ormuzd and receives a precise answer from him. 
Various statements are made that these revelations took 
place upon a mountain, which afterwards burst out into 
flames. When he at last presented himself at court, the 
king's wise men endeavoured to refute him, but were 
compelled to own that he had beaten them in argument ; 
finally the king accepted the Avesta, after the prophet 
had been accused as a sorcerer and had proved his 
mission by miracles. The king at last did nothing 
without consulting Zoroaster, and erected the first fire- 
temple. 

Having treated Zoroaster as having been a real histori- 
cal personage, round whom many mythical or exaggerated 
narratives have collected, we will quote a few sentences 
showing the contrary opinion held by not a contrary 
few scholars : " All the features in Zarathush.tr a opinions, 
point to a god : that the god may have grown up from a 



252 ZOROASTER AND THE ZEND-AVESTA. 

man, that pre-existent mythic elements may have gathered 
around the name of a man, born on earth, and by-and-by 
surrounded the human face with the aureole of a god, 
may of course be maintained, but only on condition that- 
one may distinctly express what was the real work of 
Zoroaster. That he raised a new religion against the 
Vedic religion, and cast down into hell the gods of 
older days can no longer be maintained, since the gods, 
the ideas, and the worship of Mazdeism (i.e., Zoroastrian- 
ism) are shown to emanate directly from the old religion, 
and have nothing more of a reaction against it than Zend 
has against Sanskrit." (Darmesteter, S.E., vol. iv.) 

THE DOCTRINES OF ZOROASTER. 

The most special feature of Zoroaster's teaching is the 

dualistic principle, according to which Ahura Mazda 

(Ormuzd), the good spirit, is constantly antagonised by 

ormuzd and Angra Mainyu (Ahriman), the evil spirit, who 

Ahriman. i s the originator of everything evil. The latter 
is to be ultimately expelled from the world, and man 
must take an active part in the struggle, his conduct 
being regulated by the code revealed to Zoroaster by 
Ormuzd. Ormuzd and Ahriman are believed to have 
been co-existent, and opposed in the earliest period known 
to the Gat has ; but the ultimate triumph of 

Dualism. Ormuzd indicates essential if latent inferiority 
in Ahriman. It must not be taken that other spirits 
were not believed in by Zoroaster ; but as far as one can 
judge, his special teaching relates to the supremacy and 
greatness of Ormuzd and his final victory. 

As regards conduct in this world, Zoroaster enforces 
the doctrine that no one can occupy a position of in- 
difference ; he must be either on the side of good or of 
importance ev ^* r ^ke only proper course was to choose 

attached the good, and to follow it in thought, word, 
to thoughts. an( j deed. This was announced clearly in the 
first gatha ; and we must concede to Zoroaster the great 
merit of seeing the importance of the thoughts, and 
tracing evil to that source. "When we remember how 



AHURAS. 



253 



few of the hymns of the Rig- Veda refer to sin or its 
expiation, and how slight are the traces of feelings of 
guilt, and the necessity for obtaining forgiveness for it 
from the Deity, it will be seen that the Avesta contains 
distinctly an advanced teaching. 

"Whatever may have been Zoroaster's contribution to 
the religious progress of his race, such a religion as his 
could only become accepted where there was already a 
large basis of positive belief, even if that belief Relation t0 
were erroneous; and as there can be no doubt early Aryan 
that the Iranians were derived from the same rell £ ion - 
stock as the Aryan Hindus, we must compare their early 
religion with the features found existing in the Avesta, 
in default of any document recording what was the state 
of belief upon which Zoroaster began to work. And this 
study leads to most interesting results. 

The general name for a god in the earlier portions of 
the Rig- Veda is deva (bright) ; in the Avesta the evil 
spirits are called daeva, essentially the same word ; while 
in the later Rig-Veda the name means exclusively a 
good spirit, a beneficent god. In contrast to this, Ave 
find the use of an alternative name to deva in the earlier 
parts of the Rig-Veda, namely asura. This is the same 
word as ahura in the Avesta, forming part of comparison 
the name Ormuzd (Ahura Mazda) and limited with vedic 
to a good sense. Yet in the later Rig-Vecla rell ^ lon - 
and in Brahmanism the same name is exclusively applied 
to evil spirits. We have not space to trace fully how 
this divergence was concomitant in India with the depo- 
sition of Varuna from the supreme place among the 
gods and the rise of Indra ; but it may be inferred from 
the Avesta that in Zoroaster's time the people of Iran 
were divided between two distinct and contrasted forms 
of belief — the wilder unsettled nomads who believed in 
the devas, the original spirits of the Ayran a^u^s. 
race, and who ill-treated and sacrificed cattle ; 
while the more settled people believed in the ahuras, the 
patrons of cattle, and elevated the care of cattle into a 
sacred function. 

Zoroaster therefore appeared as a champion of the 



254 ZOROASTER AND THE ZEND-AVESTA. 

belief of the settled peoples, and added the epithet 
Mazda, the wise, to the name of the chief god whom 
Zoroaster and^ e y a l re ady believed in. He identified the 
the settled old devas, still believed in by the nomads, with 
agricuitunsts.p 0wers £ ey ^ | a j ge g 0( j s? devils. These, he 

taught, were all different manifestations or helpers of 
a predominant evil principle, often called Druj, or de- 
ception, and less frequently Angra Mainyu, or Ahriman. 
This is but a concentration and development of the early 
Aryan belief in a conflict between the powers of nature, 
some benefiting and others injuring mankind. 

The frequent brief address to Ormuzd in the Vendidad 
is u the most blissful spirit, creator of the material world, 
Attributes of thou Holy One/ 7 or more fully, "I venerate 

ormuzd. the Creator, Ahura Mazda, the brilliant, radiant, 
greatest, best, most beautiful, mightiest, wisest, best- 
formed, most exalted through holiness, giving profusely, 
granting much bliss, who created us, who prepares us, 
who maintains us, the most blissful spirit. 7 ' Dr. Greiger 
lays stress on the spiritual view which is given of 
Ormuzd, ancf says that he is not represented as having 
any visible form, except where the sun (Mithra) is 
spoken of as " the body and the eye of Mazda.' 7 Anthro- 
pomorphism is rare as applied to the Supreme Being 
m the Avesta : and Greiger looks upon all the passages as 
symbolical, which speak of wives and relatives of Ormuzd. 
But we cannot be blind to the extreme probability that 
such relationships would be looked upon as real by the 
general mass of the people, however definitely the leaders 
may have regarded them as symbolical. 

Great importance is evidently attached to the " name 77 

of Ormuzd, and it is interesting to compare it with the 

"name" of Jehovah as treated in the Old Testament Scrip- 

The name of tures, and the 99 names of Allah in the Koran. 

ormuzd. These names, as given in the Ormuzd Yast, 
are u the One of whom questions are asked, the Herd- 
giver, the Strong One, Perfect Holiness, Creator of all 
good things, Understanding, Knowledge, Well-being, and 
the Producer of well-being, Ahura (the Lord), the most 
Beneficent, He in whom there is no harm, the Un- 



ORMUZD. 255 

conquerable, He who makes the true account (that is of 
good works and sins), the All-Seeing, the Healer, Mazda 
(the All-wise). 77 He is represented in the gathas as not 
to be deceived, and as looking upon everything as a 
warder with eyes radiant with holiness. How high is 
the conception of the deity reached in the gathas may 
be seen from the following extract from one of them 
(Yasna 44) :— 

" That I ask of Thee, tell me the right, Ahura ! 
Who was the father of the pure creatures at the beginning ? 
Who has created the way of the sun, of the stars ? 
Who but Thou made it that the moon waxes and wanes ? 
This, Mazda, and other things I long to know. 
Who upholds the earth and the clouds above, 
That they fall not ? Who made the water and the plants ? 
Who gave their swiftness to the winds and the clouds ? 
Who is, Mazda, the creator of the pious mind ? 
Who, working good, has made light as well as darkness ? 
Who, working good, has made sleep and wakefulness ? 
Who made the dawn, the mid-days, and the evenings ? " 

There is no donbt that Ormuzd is believed to have 
existed before any material thing, and to have called the 
world into existence by his will. He is specially men- 
tioned as the creator of the holy mind, of religious truth, 
and of the prayers and offerings. Fire is also a special 
creation of Ormuzd, the importance of which we shall see 
later. Being omniscient and infallible, he rewards the 
good and punishes the evil both in this world and the 
next. Thus we read in the gathas : — 

" Whosoever in righteousness shows to me 
The genuine good actions, to me who am Zarathushtra : 
Him they '(the divine beings) grant as a reward the next world, 
Which is more desirable than all others. 
That hast thou said to me, Mazda, thou who knowest best." 

The impious are thus threatened : " Whoso brings 
about that the pious man is defrauded, his dwelling is 
finally for a long time in darkness, and vile food and 
irony shall fall to his lot. Towards this region, ye 
vicious, your souls will conduct you on account of your 
actions. " 



256 ZOROASTER AND THE ZEND-AVESTA. 

There have not been wanting those who see in the 
resemblances between this conception of the supreme 
Deity and that of the Jews a proof that the one was 
derived from the other ; but the view that they are 
distinct and unrelated finds warm advocacy. Thus Dr. 
Geiger says : " In this sublime conception of the Avesta, 
Ahura Mazda undoubtedly stands far above the deities 
of the Veclic pantheon. Only the Jehovah of the ancient 
Lofty Jews may be compared to him. But how- 
conception of ever obvious the similarity between the God 
the Deity. £ j srae j an( j £he g 0( j f ^ e Mazdeans may be, 

still I reject entirely the assumption that the Avesta 
people have borrowed from the Jews. Upon the Iranian 
soil a narrowly-confined nation has, independently and 
of itself, attained that high conception of God, which, 
with the exception of the Jews, was never attained by 
any Aryan, Semitic, or Turanian tribe. " (G.) To another 
student, Professor Geldner, Ormuzd appears as the ideal- 
ised figure of an oriental king. To Professor Darmesteter 
he is the developed idea of the old Aryan " Heaven-God, " 
and many features betray his former sky nature. Thus 
"he is white, bright, seen afar, and his body is the 
greatest and fairest of all bodies ; he has the sun for his 
eye, the rivers above for his spouses, the fire of lightning 
for his son ; he wears the heaven as a star-spangled gar- 
ment ; he dwells in the infinite luminous space. " 

The sevenfold arrangement of the Vedic gods which 
was sometimes made, and from which were developed 
the twelve adityas, was seen also in the Iranian religion, 
The Amesha- and it is a question whether it did not exist 

spentas. ve ry early, Ormuzd becoming the most pro- 
minent and finally the supreme. In some parts of the 
Avesta mention is made of seven Amesha-Spentas (the 
blissful immortals), of whom Ahura Mazda is chief. The 
names of the others are (1) Vohu-mano. the good mind, 
(2) Asha-vahishta, the best holiness, (3) Khshathra-varya, 
the desirable sovereignty, (4) Spenta-Armati, moderate 
thinking and humble sense, (5) Harvatat, well-being, 
happiness, health, (6) Amertal, long life, immortality. 
The abstract meanings of these names render it difficult 



THE AMESHA-SPENTAS, 257 

to understand them, but there is no doubt that they are 
invoked in the Avesta as real beings who can answer 
praj r er. We find them very definitely associated with 
particular functions : Vohu-mano protects herds, Asha is 
the genius of fire, Khshathra has the care of metals, 
Spenta-Armati is the guardian of the earth, while the 
last two protect the waters and plants. "We may here 
indicate with some reserve G-eiger's explanation of the 
abstract meaning of some of the Amesha-Spentas, as 
connected with these practical functions. Vohu-mano, 
the good mind, is the protector of herds because the 
people w T ho accepted the Zoroastrian doctrine, and con- 
sequently were of good mind, were the cattle-rearers, 
as opposed to the nomads. Vohu-mano came also to be 
regarded as the guardian of all living beings. The con- 
nection of Asha, purity, with fire, is evident, fire being 
the symbol of purity. Armati (the Vedic goddess Ara- 
mati) is the protector of the earth r regarded as " the 
humble suffering one which bears all, nourishes all, and 
sustains all. In the Big-Veda Aramati is devotion, or 
the genius of devotion. By the Indian commentator 
Sayana, Armati is regarded as w T isdom, but he also de- 
fines the same word twice as the l earth.' ' Harvatat, 
health, is the master of water, for the waters dispense 
health. Amertal, long life and immortality, is the genius 
of plants, which dispel sickness and death, especially the 
Haoma (Indian Soma) plant, which gives health and long 
keeps up the vital powers. The white Haoma gives 
immortality. Fire is spoken of as the son of Ormuzd, 
and Armati as his daughter. In one place (Yast xix.) 
we find all invoked as sons of Ormuzd : "I invoke the 
glory of the Amesha-Spentas, who all seven have one 
and the same thinking, one and the same doing, one and 
the same father and lord, Ahura Mazda." 

Another subject of great interest is the part played 
by the yazatas, sometimes characterised as angels or 
spiritual genii presiding over elements or over abstract 
ideas. Mr. Dastur says : "In the abstract, anything 
that is excellent and worthy of praise in the moral and 
material universe and that glorifies the wisdom of the 



258 ZOROASTER AND THE ZEND-AVESTA. 

Deity is a yazata," (Gr. p. xxiv.) Mitlira is one of 

the most significant of these, because he can 

or spiritual' be identified with Mitra, the Vedic god of 

genii. the heavenly light, closely associated with Yar- 
una. Mitlira was believed to see and therefore know 
everything, and became the witness of truth 
' and the preserver of oaths and good faith ; 
consequently he punishes those who break their promises. 
He is also the lord of wide pastures and the prince of 
the countries. The tenth yast contains many hymns 
to Mitlira, from which the following extracts are made 
(S. E. xxiii.), 

" Ahura Mazda spake unto Spitama Zarathushtra, say- 
ing : ' Verily, when I created Mitlira, the lord of wide 
pastures, Spitama, I created him as worthy of sacrifice, 
as worthy of prayer as myself, Ahura Mazda. The 
ruffian who lies unto Mithra (or who breaks the contract) 
brings death unto the whole country, injuring as much, 
the faithful world as a hundred evil-doers could do. 
Break not the contract, Spitama, neither the one that 
thou haclst entered into with one of the unfaithful, nor 
the one that thou haclst entered into with one of the 
faithful, who is one of thy own faith. For Mithra stands 
for both the faithful and the unfaithful. ' " 

" We sacrifice unto Mithra, the lord of wide pastures, 
who is truth-speaking, a chief in assemblies, with a 
thousand ears, well-shapen, with ten thousand eyes, 
high, with full knowledge, strong, sleepless, and ever 
awake. 

" Who upholds the columns of the lofty house and 
makes its pillars solid; who gives herds of oxen and 
male children to that house in which he has been satis- 
fied ; he breaks to pieces those in which he has been 
offended." 

On behalf of Mitlira, loud claims are put forth for a 
sacrifice, invoking him in his own name. He is prayed 
to for riches, strength, and victory, good conscience and 
bliss, wisdom and the knowledge that gives happiness. 
In one place he is a warlike, courageous youth, who 
drives in a chariot with four white horses through the 



SRAOSHA. 259 

heavens, and also into battle ; who becomes a j^azata of 
war. See the account of Mithraism, later, p. 276. 

Vayu, another Vedic deity, is the storm yazata in the 
Avesta, and is appealed to by Ornruzd to grant him 
power to smite Ahriman. He is invoked as a strong 
warlike helper in every danger. Among other 
important yazatas are that of Fire, the mes- yu * 

senger of the gods, sent down as lightning and sun-fire 
to the earth ; that of the waters, Ardvisura Anahita, 
Tistrya the rain-bestower, Verethragna the fiend smiter, 
and the Sun and Moon, etc. Many of these are identical 
in name and epithets with Vedic gods or spirits, and in 
reading the yasts we seem to hear again the strains of 
the Rig- Veda. 

" He who offers up a sacrifice unto the undying, shining, 
swift-horsed sun, to withstand darkness, to withstand the 
daevas born of darkness, to withstand the robbers and 
bandits, to withstand death that creeps in unseen, offers 
it up to Ahura Mazda, offers it up to the Amesha- 
Spentas, offers it up to his own soul. 

" We sacrifice unto Tistrya, the bright and glorious 
star, for whom long the standing waters, and the running 
spring- waters, the stream-waters and the rain-waters : 

" When will the bright and glorious Tistrya rise up 
for us ? When will the springs with a flow and over- 
flow of waters, thick as a horse's shoulder, run to the 
beautiful places and fields, and to the pastures, even to 
the roots of the plants, that they may grow with a 
powerful growth ? " 

The spirit or god Sraosha must also be mentioned; 
his name signifies obedience, especially to the Holy 
Word. He it was who first tied together the Sraosha 
baresma, the consecrated sacrificial branches ; 
he first sang the sacred hymns; three times a day he 
descends on the world to smite Ahriman. Hence he 
has been termed the priest-god ; the holy prayers are the 
weapons with which he smites. He requires a man to 
rise early that he may perform the due rites ; he pities 
the poor and needy, and guards the sanctity of the cove- 
nants. Again Ashi or piety, moral order, the daughter 



260 ZOROASTER AND THE ZEND-AVESTA. 

of Ormuzcl and sister of Sraosha, Mithra and others, be- 
stows the human intellect, defends matrimony, and cares 
actively for the house. She confers power and riches, 
and gives beauty to maidens. 

Another spirit is named Geush-urvan, " Soul of the 
Bull ; ' ; in the gathas we find this spirit complaining 

The soul of before Ormuzd of the oppressions and dangers 
the hull, inflicted on him by enemies. Besides those 
named, many other spirits are invoked, such as the holy 
doctrine, the Holy Word, the genius of justice, etc. Here 
we see how prone Zoroastrianism. was to personify ab- 
stract ideas, just as the Vedic religion personified material 
objects or forces. 

We now come to the obverse side of the picture — the 
powers of evil, and their relations to Ormuzd and the 

The powers forces of goodness. It has already been stated 
of evil. } 10w prominently the Avesta asserts dualism 
in the government of the world ; but there are not 
wanting those who consider that Zoroastrianism is not 
more dualistic than Christianity, and point to the fact 
that no attempt is made to account for the origin of either 
spirit, while the temporary character of the power of the 
evil one is distinctly asserted. (West, S. E., vol. xviii.) 
Haug says that Zoroaster held the grand idea of the unity 
and indivisibility of the supreme Being, and sought to 
reconcile the existence of imperfections and evils with the 
goodness and justice of God by supposing two primeval 
causes which, though different, were united. But it is 
surely simpler to take the plain statements of the gathas, 
that two powerful beings opposed and counteracted each 
other, but that the good Being is the stronger and will 
ultimately conquer, as expressing the essence of the creed 
of Zoroaster. If one reads the gathas naturally, without 
prepossessions, it will appear that Ahriman is imagined 
to have existed from the beginning. 

Ahriman, the prince of the demons, is the opposite 

and counterpart of Ormuzd in all characters. He dwells 

in infinite darkness, and is all darkness, false- 

Ahnman. ^ 00 ^ an( j wickedness, and around him all evil 

spirits collect. Any good man is his enemy, and he is 



ZOROASTER MAGNIFIED. 261 

represented as being enraged at tlie birth of Zoroaster. 
The evil spirits are the daevas, (devas) male, and the 
druj (female). There are six principal evil The daevas 
spirits corresponding to the Amesha-Spenta : and dru J- 
thus (1) Akomano, evil mind; (2) Andra (Indra), destruc- 
tive fire ; (3) Saru, the tyrant, opposed the first three of 
the Amesha-Spentas. 

The first section of the Vendidad exhibits in detail 
the way in which Ahriman counterworked the beneficent 
creation of Ormuzd. His first creation was the serpent 
in the river, and winter, followed by the cattle-fly, corn- 
carrying ants, the mosquito, demon-nymphs and wizards, 
etc.; and also the sinful lusts, unbelief, pride, unnatural 
sins, the burying and burning of corpses, the oppression 
of foreign rulers, and excessive heat, each following a 
beneficial creation of Ormuzd. Ahriman was also repre- 
sented as the killer of the first bull, the poisoner of plants, 
the causer of smoke, of sin, and of death. 

Some of the associate spirits of evil can be identified 
with Vedic spirits ; such are the Yatus, wizard demons. 
The Pairikas are demon-nymphs who keep off the rain- 
floods. The Drvants or Dregvants are head- The Yatus, 
long-running fiends. The Varenya daevas are Drvants, etc. 
the fiends in the heavens. Bushyasta sends people to 
sleep at dawn, and makes them forget to say their prayers. 
We cannot go into the details relating to all these. 

We must note how in the Yasts Zoroaster appears as 
the typical and best human being, who first antagonised 
Ahriman. Thus, we read in Yast 13, " We worship the 
piety and the Fravashi (see p. 262) spirit of the Zoroaster 
holy Zarathushtra, who first thought, spoke, and magnified, 
did what is good, who was the first priest, the first 
warrior, the first plougher of the ground, who first knew 
and taught ; who first possessed the bull, and holiness, 
the word and obedience to the word, and dominion, and 
all the good things made by Mazda ; who first in the 
material world proclaimed the word that destroys the 
daevas, the law of Ahura ; who was strong, giving all the 
good things of life, the first bearer of the law among the 
nations ; for whom the Amesha-Spentas longed, in one 



262 ZOROASTER AND THE ZEND-AVESTA, 

accord with the sun, in the fulness of faith of a devoted 
heart ; they longed for him, as the lord and master of 
the world, as the praiser of the most great, most good, 
and most fair Asha ; in whose birth and growth the 
waters and the plants rejoiced ; and whose birth and 
growth all the creatures of the good creations cried out, 
u Hail ! " (S.E. vol. xxiii.) Here we see, as if in process, 
the deification of a human being. 

The conflict between good and evil was represented 
as universal in its extent. Every power or being or 
The universal material thing was engaged on one side or the 

conflict, other. All animals and plants belong to one 
or the other, or are forced into their service. Sometimes 
the gods and fiends are seen under the guise of dogs, 
snakes, otters, frogs, etc. ; and it was held a crime to 
kill the creatures of Ormuzcl, while a man might atone 
for evil by killing the creatures of Ahriman. Darmes- 
teter, speculating on this aspect of the Avesta, says, 
" Persia was on the brink of zoolatry." 

Of course mankind were shared between Ormuzd and 
Ahriman. The servant of Ahriman and of Asha (fire) 

The g-ood °^ GTS sacrifice to them with libations of haoma 

and the juice (the Vedic Soma), the great healing and 

wicked, invigorating plant, which when drunk by the 
faithful benefits the gods ; sacrifices of consecrated meat 
and libations of holy water. He aids Ormuzd and the 
holy spirits by every good thought, word, and deed, and 
by increasing the number of and protecting the creatures 
of Ormuzcl. The priest, or Atharvan, who drives away 
fiends and diseases by his spells : the warrior who de- 
stroys the impious, the husbandman who produces good 
harvests, are all workers for Ormuzd, and those who do 
the contrary, for Ahriman. The former will have a seat 
near Ormuzd in heaven, and at the end of time the dead 
will rise and live happily on the earth, which will then be 
free from all evil. 

In this connection we may note the belief in the exist- 

The ence of a spirit (Fravashi) distinct from the 

Fravashis. body originally, separated from it by death, and 

believed to be simply the spirit of ancestors ; but this 



FUTURE REWARDS AND PUNISHMENTS. 263 

developed into a belief in Fravashis as the immortal 
principle or counterpart of any being, whether gods, 
animals, plants, or physical objects. They are spoken of 
in Yast xni. as " the awful and overpowering Fravashis," 
bringing help and joy to the faithful, helping in the 
maintenance of all creations. Because of the help they 
give in the perpetual conflict between good and evil, the 
Fravashis are worshipped and invoked on all occasions. 
They are praised as " the mightiest of drivers, the lightest 
of those driving forwards, the slowest of the retiring, the 
safest of all bridges, the least erring of all weapons and 
arms, and never turning their backs " ; they are corre- 
spondingly dreadful to the foe. They are, however, said 
to ask for help thus: u Who will praise us? Who will 
offer us a sacrifice ? Who will meditate upon us ? Who 
will bless us? Who will receive us with meat and clothes 
in his hand, and with a prayer worthy of bliss? " High 
above all other Fravashis is the Fravashi of Ahura 
Mazda. 

There is no doubt that the Avesta teaches the doctrine 
of immortality, and a coming world which is " better than 
the good." The idea of a bridge conducting, 
men thither has been common to many re- 
ligions. The early Avesta represents it as a chinvat 
bridge, or bridge of retribution, at which justice is 
administered. The good go to the abode of light and 
glory where Ormuzd reigns and is praised in hymns. 
The evil, the false priests, and idol- worshippers go for all 
eternity to the habitation of the devils, in eternal night, 
scorned by the demons. Yast xxii. gives a detailed de- 
scription of the fate of the good and of the evil. Future 
A good man's spirit, remaining near the head rewards and 
of the body, tastes during the three nights sn c- punislimeilts - 
ceeding the death of the body as much happiness as the 
whole living world can taite. He passes into the most 
blissful region and is met by his own conscience in the 
shape of a beautiful heaven]y maiden who recites to him 
all his good deeds, and then conducts him through the 
Paradises of Good Thought, Good Worth, Good Deed, 
and Endless Light. The evil man correspondingly suffers 



264 ZOROASTER AND THE ZEND-A VESTA. 

for three nights as much as the whole living world can 
suffer, and then is brought through a foul region into 
the hills of Evil Thought, Evil Word, and Evil Deed, 
and finally into endless darkness. Later this vision is 
amplified. 

In one passage of the gathas we find mention of a 
final dissolution of creation, when the final distribution 

The final of rewards and punishments will take place ; 

dlS and ti0n but the general tenor of the Avesta is to look 

renovation, for a regeneration of the earth, with a resur- 
rection of the bodies of the dead, to join their souls. 
Many hold that this view of the resurrection was original 
in Zoroastrianism, and that it was adopted from the 
Persians by the Jews. The end of the world is to be 
preceded by the appearance of three great prophets, all 
regarded as supernatural sons of Zarathushtra, the last 
one (Astvat-erta) being named the victorious Saviour, 
embodied piety, overcoming all torments of men and 
demons. He is to renew the world, he makes the living 
immortal and awakens the dead from their sleep, brings 
death, old age and decay to an end, and grants to the 
pious eternal life and happiness. One last decisive 
struggle takes place between the powers of light and 
darkness, and Astvat-erta, with the aid of the good 
spirits, vanquishes the demons, and extirpates evil. Then 
comes the peaceful and happy reign of Ormuzd and all 
the good, no longer disturbed by any evil-disposed being. 




CHAPTER XII. 

€!)e Zoroastnan ^Booitsf— iWit&rafem* 

The Avesta— Country of its origin— Date of the Avesta— The Gathas— People 
to whom addressed— The Vendidad— The most pleasing and displeasing 
things— Impurity of corpses— Exposure of dead— Law of contracts and 
assaults— The Vispered and Yasna— The liturgies— The early rites of 
Mazdaism— Rise of the Magi— Loss of Zoroastrian hooks— The Pahlavi 
texts— The Bundahish— The Shayast la-Shayast— The Dadistan-i-Dinik 
—The Spirit of Wisdom— Mithraism— Mithraic monuments— Antagonism 
of Christians— Mithraic ceremonies. 

THE AVESTA. 

in ROM the Avesta itself it appears to be conclusively 
-L proved that it originated in Eastern Iran, east of 
the central desert of Persia, the land of the Syr-Daria, 
nearly all the places mentioned in it being situated 
therein, with the exception of Ragha, near its country of 
western boundary. Babylon is the only famous its ori s in - 
western city mentioned. A passage especially noted is 
this, in which the Aryan country is described as the first 
created and best land. " As the first of the lands and as 
the best dwelling-place, I, Ahura-Mazda (Ormuzd), created 
the Aryana-vaija (the country), situated on the good 
Datya. Thereupon Angra Mainyu (Ahriman), who is 
•full of death, counter-created the water serpents and a 
winter produced by the demons. " (G-.) This Aryan country 
was very possibly in Upper Ferghana. 

The Avesta itself testifies to its own date in the fol- 



266 THE ZOROASTRIAN BOOKS. 

lowing way. It does not mention any town which was 
Date of the famous in the Median and Achemenian period 
Avesta. except Ragha ; nor does it mention the names 
of later nations or empires. It only knows Aryans, not 
Persians, Parthians, or Medes as such. It does not even 
contain any reference to the battles between the Medes 
and the Babylonians, still less to the conquests of Alex- 
ander the Great. And this is the more significant as 
it alludes to many external events, battles, inroads of 
foreigners, the hostility of the Aryans to non-Aryans, 
and of the settled agriculturists to the nomad tribes. 
The tribal grouping was in full force, and only specially 
powerful kings were able to unite the tribes into king- 
doms. It is much more natural to regard all this as a 
sign of great antiquity, especially when coupled with 
the primitive t}~pe of the Avesta language. And it is 
not safe to dismiss portions of the narrative as purely 
mythical because all trace of some of the names men- 
tioned has vanished. Herodotus's statement that the 
Medes were anciently called Aryans, supports this view 
of the antiquity of the record which deals solely with 
Aryans, before the Medes had become a distinct people. 

Let us take the gathas, or hymns of the Avesta, con- 
tained in the Yasna, and study them for traces of the 
people among whom they were composed. In them 
Zoroaster speaks directly. The king Vishtaspa 
e ga as. ^ described as his pious friend in his great 
work, wishful to announce it ; and in many ways the 
gathas address or speak of contemporary persons and 
events. The religion itself is in process of formation, 
and its followers are subject to persecution. No doubt 
mythology is intermingled ; but if everything which 
contains mythological interpretations or descriptions were 
adjudged to contain no historical fact, very much more 
than the Avesta would have to be sacrificed. 

One important fact intimating the great age of the 
gathas, and also showing the connection of the Aryan 
people they describe with the Aryans of the Rig- Veda, 
is the high importance attributed to the cow, showing 
special attention to its breeding and rearing. Thus they 



THE VEXDIDAD. 267 

were in tlie pastoral state which succeeds a nomad life, 
and becoming more settled than mere keepers Thepeople 
of sheep and goats, which can be readily trans- to whom 
f erred from place to place. We are expressly addressecL 
told in the gathas that the cow is the giver of permanent 
homes, and the especial care of the active labourer, and 
also leads to the development of agriculture. In the 
Vendidad, in contrast to this, agriculture has become of 
equal importance with cattle-breeding. In the gathas 
antagonism is represented, as occurring between the 
nomads and the agriculturists, and the former oppose 
the teaching of Zoroaster. In fact, the nomads plundered 
the settled people then as now. and naturally disliked the 
moral teacher of their more civilised brethren. We find 
Zoroaster assigned as the special protector of the cow, 
and the announcer to man that the cow is created for the 
industrious and the active. In the later parts of the 
Avesta we find the religion of Zoroaster firmly established 
and an order of priests (Atharvans), but the people are 
still peasants and shepherds, and their daily life is inti- 
mately connected with their religion, the annual feasts 
being specially related to the agricultural and pastoral 
life. The people do not yet seem to have used salt. 
Glass, coined money, and iron were unknown : the bronze 
age still ruled. One passage, which has been alleged to 
refer to Grautama, and to show the date of the Avesta to 
be later than his time, is not at all conclusive, and the 
name is rather an old Iranian form : also the name 
Gautama occurs in the Rig- Veda. It was. in fact, an 
early Aryan name. 

The Vendidad is specially the Zoroastrian book of purifi- 
cation ; but the first two sections belong to the older 
literature. The first section at once touches The 
a natural chord by representing Ahura-Mazda Vendidad. 
(Ormuzd) as telling Zoroaster that he has made every 
country dear to its own people ; were it not so. they 
would all have come to the Aryan country, which was 
created best of good lands. The counter-creation of 
Angra Mainyu (Ahriman) is then described, giving rise 
to the ten months of winter. Other neighbouring conn- 



268 THE ZOROASTRIAN BOOKS. 

tries were then created, followed by Ahriman's creation 
of special evils or plagues, including various sins, evils, 
and insect plagues. In the second section Zoroaster asks 
Ormuzd who was the first mortal with whom he had 
conversed ; and he replies, " The fair Yima, the great 
shepherd," who appears to have represented the founder 
of civilisation. Afterwards he was told that a period of 
fatal winters was approaching, and he was commanded 
to gather into a large enclosure all kinds of seeds and 
grains, and to make a sort of terrestrial paradise. This 
Yima is compared in some respects with Yama, the ruler 
of departed spirits, in the Big- Veda. 

The third section gives an enumeration of five things 
most pleasing and five most displeasing to the earth. 

The most These are, (1) the place where one of the faith- 
P dfsp S ieSing d f u ^ with wood for the altar fire, and the sacred 
things, bundle of twigs, steps forward praying to 
Mithra, the lord of wide pastures, and Rama Svastra, 
the god that gives good pastures to cattle ; (2) the place 
where one of the faithful erects a house for a priest, 
with wife, children, and herds ; (3) the place where one 
of the faithful cultivates most corn, grass, and fruit; 

(4) where there is most increase of flocks and herds; 

(5) and where they yield most manure. The unpleasing 
places relate to the corpses or other creations of Ahriman, 
and also the captive wife and children of one of the 

impurity faithful. No man is allowed to carry a corpse 
of corpses, alone, and every corpse, if buried, must be 
disinterred (for exposure) within six months. A large 
part of the Vendidad relates to the extent of defilement 
by corpses or portions of dead matter and the means of 
purification. Throughout all we see the guiding prin- 
ciple that purity, especially of the body, is of prime 
importance ; but impurity is believed to be the work of 
a demon, which especially inhabits a corpse, and thence 
passes to those who touch it. Peculiar washings and 
spells are enjoined in order to expel the impure spirit. 
Nowhere has this idea of impurity connected with the 
dead been more elaborately developed. The evil spirit 
is expelled from the corpse itself by the " four-eyed dog " 



LAW OF CONTRACTS AXD ASSAULTS. 269 

being brought near and made to look at the dead. In 
practice this is interpreted as a dog with two spots above 
the eyes. This may be compared with the four-eyed 
dogs of the Vedic god Yama, and the three-headed Cer- 
berus, watching at the doors of hell. Wherever the 
corpse passed, death walked with it, threatening the 
living ; consequently no man or animal might pass that 
way till the deadly breath had been blown away by the 
four-eyed clog, the priest aiding with his spells. 

Fire, earth, and water being all holy to Zoroastrians, 
corpses must be kept as far as possible away from them 
and placed on the highest summits, where there Exposure 
are always corpse-eating dogs and birds, and ofdead - 
fastened by the feet and hair lest the bones should be 
carried away. The bones must afterwards be laid in a 
building known as the Dokma, or tower of silence. This 
principle was carried out very thoroughly, partial death 
and sickness being equally unclean. Everything proceed- 
ing from the human body was impure, even parings of 
nails and cut hair. Sickness was sent by Ahriman, and 
must be cured by washings and spells. If several healers 
offered themselves together, one healing with the knife, 
one with herbs, and one with the holy word or by spells, 
the latter was to be preferred. Hence the class of priests 
included the chief doctors. 

The fourth section of the Vendidad is occupied with 
laws about contracts and assaults ; the latter are of seven 
degrees, and guilt is estimated as very greatly increased 
by each repetition of the offence. Crimes are Law of con- 
punished not only by stripes, but in addition tracts and 
by penalties after death. Offences against the 
gods were punished more heavily than offences against 
man ; and death is the punishment of the man who 
falsely pretends to cleanse the unclean, and the man who 
carries a corpse alone, these being special offences against 
the gods. Repentance only saves the sinner from penal- 
ties after death. The burning or burial of the dead, 
the eating dead matter, and unnatural crimes were in- 
expiable, apparently punished by death as well as future 
torments. 



270 THE ZOROASTRIAN BOOKS. 

The Vispered and Yasna properly form an indivisible 
part of the A vesta ; in fact, they constitute a liturgy. 
The Visperecl, which is very short, contains merely in- 
vocations and invitations to Ormuzd and the good genii 
The vispered to be present at the ceremonies about to be 
and Yasna. performed. The Yasna means literally "offer- 
ing with prayers," and includes the gathas or hymns, to 
"which we have already referred. These were to be 
recited by the priests alone (the laity not being present), 
during the performance of certain religious ceremonies, 
which in brief were the consecration of holy water, of the 
sacred twigs or Baresma, and of the juice of the Haoma, 
and the offering of the draonas, or little round cakes, on 
which pieces of cooked flesh were placed, and afterwards 
eaten by the priests. Properly it was the priest's duty to 
recite the entire Avesta once every twenty-four hours, 
and principally during the night, this being essential in 
order that they might keep themselves fit to perform 
the rites of purification. 

The liturgies are not of interest proportionate to their 

length, and it is difficult to give an idea of their varied 

character within our limits. Here is a brief extract from 

the Vispered : " "We honour the omniscient spirit Ahura- 

The Mazda. We honour the light of the sun. We 

liturgies, honour the sun, the Amesha-Spentas. We 
honour the perfect Mantras. We honour the brilliant 
works of purity. We honour the assemblies, of which 
fire is the cause. We honour pure and benevolent pros- 
perity and intelligence." Again, " Apply your feet, hands, 
will, Mazcleans, disciples of Zarathustra, to the practice 
of the good works prescribed by law and justice, to the 
avoidance of bad actions, contrary to law, and unjust ; 
give to those who lack." 

The Yasna largely consists of lists of those in whose 
honour the various consecrated objects are offered, or 
to whose praise the priests are chanting. Thus : " With 
this Baresma and holy water I honour the pure spirits 
of the months, pure spirits of the. pure world. I honour 
the new moon, pure spirits of the pure world." Fre- 
quently various points in the history or achievements of 



PARSEE S UN- WORSHIP. 



271 



the spirits are alluded to. Then tlie features of Ormuzd's 
rule are spoken of: " Reign undisputed over the waters, 




over tlie trees, over all that is good and of pure origin. 
Make the just man powerful, and the wicked powerless 



2J2 THE ZOROASTRIAN BOOKS. 

and weak." A long account of the origin and history 
of Haoma is put into the mouth of Zoroaster, and prayer 
is offered to him as a person, in extravagant terms. 
Paradise, health, long life, prosperity, conquest, safety, 
posterity, etc.. are among the gifts besought of Haoma. 
He is also asked to frustrate the efforts of those who 
would injure the worshipper, and to bring every calamity 
upon him. 

From these various indications we may picture to our- 
selves the Zoroastrian religion as practised centuries 

The early before the Christian era, and long after the 
rites of time of Zoroaster. It is to be noted that the 

Mazdaism. ^yesta contains no mention of temples; and 
the sacred fire was kept up on altars in the open air on 
elevated places, at most surrounded by a simple wall. 
No image or representation of the gods or genii was 
made ; fire alone was sufficient to symbolise them, kept 
up perpetually in great stone or copper basins, fed with 
the choicest wood. The priests (atharvans) taught the 
holy law, recited the sacred texts and invocations, pre- 
pared the Haoma, washed and kept the sacred vessels, 
and presided at ceremonies of penance and purification. 
They were expected to know the Avesta by heart, and 
had charge of the instruction and initiation of novices 
and students. It appears that they were accustomed to 
go from place to place in the exercise of their sacred 
functions ; and some of them were medically skilled, but 
performed many cures by sacred formulas. The holy days 
which the religion prescribed were sufficiently numerous, 
including the 1st, 8th, 18th, and 23rd of each month, 
sacred to Ormuzd, the 3rd and 5th to the Amesha-Spentas, 
and every day had its special spirit or deity. The new 
year's festival to Ormuzd, and that of the autumnal 
equinox to Mithra, were among the principal festivals ; 
and the dead in general were celebrated on the last ten 
days of the year. The contaminations that made men 
impure, as we have already detailed them, gave much 
work to the priests in purification. 

By the time of Darius, Chaldsean and Semitic image- 
worship had influenced the worshippers of Ormuzd to a 



RISE OF THE MAGI. 273 

limited extent. Darius placed a symbolical picture of 
the god 011 his inscriptions ; Artaxerxes II. Ri Se C f the 
erected statues and a temple to Anahita, at Ma ^ 
Ecbatana. How the Magians became the priests of the 
Avesta religion we have no clear account. They appear 
to have been a tribe or caste of the Mecles, and probably 
they were the inheritors of the primitive Aryan tradition, 
who accepted the Zoroastrian development of it, and ac- 
quired great influence in the Persian empire, becoming 
not only teachers of religion, and priests, but also political 
administrators and advisers ; and they appear to have be- 
come combined or amalgamated with the priestly families 
of old Persia. The Sacred fire was carried before the 
kings by Magians, and the king's sons were instructed 
by them in the religion of Zoroaster. It is doubtful 
whether at this time they occupied themselves with sooth- 
saying, prophecy, the interpretation of dreams, etc. ; it 
is probable that these offices were performed by the 
Chaldsean priests. The Greek historians represent that 
no one could sacrifice in Persia without a Magian. They 
offered sacrifices at high places, first praying to fire (or 
rather, looking towards the sacred fire i. They sacrificed 
animals, striking them down with a club ; but no part of 
the flesh was set apart for the deity, the soul of the 
animal only being required. " As far west as Cappadocia," 
says Strabo, " there w r ere enclosed places, in the midst 
of which was an altar heaped up with ashes. On this 
the Magians kept up the unquenchable fire. Each day 
they went and sang for an hour before the fire, holding 
in their hands a bundle of twigs." The Magian religion 
extended even to the cities of Lydia, where Pausanias 
observed their worship. 

The exposure of corpses was but partially practised by 
the ancient Persians, and may have been restricted to 
the priests. Certainly the kings were buried : but under 
the Sassanian monarchy, the dead were exposed according 
to the modern custom. 

There can be little doubt that the Avesta anciently 
consisted of many more books than we have at present. 
Various traditions speak of their number (twenty-one) 

T 



274 THE Z0R0ASTR1AN BOOKS. 

and contents, and the efforts made to preserve them. 

Loss of Alexander the Great, in a drunken frolic, burnt 
zoroastrian the palace at Persepolis, which contained one 

books. £ -j-] ie ^ w0 then existing complete copies of 
these books, and the other was said to have been taken 
away by the Greeks. The attempts of the Sassanian 
kings of Persia to collect and preserve the Zoroastrian 
books were rendered futile by the destroying fury of the 
Mohammedans, and those who refused to adopt the faith 
of the conquerors emigrated to India, and settled chiefly 
on western shores. They preserved some portions of the 
A vesta, together with translations, commentaries, and 
original works in the Pahlavi language and character, 
which prevailed in Persia from the third to the tenth 
The Pahlavi century a.d. In these Pahlavi texts we have 

texts. much of the middle period of Mazdaism, u with 
a strange mixture of old and new materials," says Dr. "West, 
" and exhibiting the usual symptom of declining powers, a 
strong insistence upon complex forms and minute details." 

The Bundahish is one of these texts which gives an 
account of cosmogony and legendary history, describing 
The creation under the good and evil influences of 
Bundahish. Ormuzd and Ahriman, with their conflicts, and 
coming down to early Persian kings and to Zoroaster, 
with a brief account of later Persian history. There are 
many references which indicate that this is a translation 
with commentary from an Avesta original. The Bahman 
Yast is a remarkable prophetical book, in which Ormuzd 
is said to give to Zarathustra a narrative of the future 
history of his religion. 

The Shayast La-Shayast is a work about " the proper 
and the improper," or laws and customs about sin and 
t i m P ur ity. The nature and degrees of different 
breaches of propriety, the kinds of good works 
and those who can or cannot perform them, the mode of 
atoning for sins, various kinds of worship, and an infinite 
number of detailed rules are given, showing no elevation of 
mind, but a pedantic reliance on outward formal purification. 

The Dadistan-i-Dinik, by Manuskihar, a high priest 
of the Parsees, was written in the ninth century, and 



THE SPIRIT OF WISDOM. 275 

represents tlie doctrines and practice of the modern 
Parsees. The title signifies " Religious Opinions The 
or Decisions." The purpose of the creation of Dadistan-i- 
men is defined as "for progress and goodness," Dimk. 
which men are bound to promote. Man is bound to 
glorify and praise the all-good Creator. "A righteous 
man is the creature by whom is accepted that occupa- 
tion which is provided for him, and is fully watchful in 
the world as to his not being deceived by the rapacious 
fiend." The evil happening to the good in this world 
to so large an extent is attributed to the demons and 
evil men ; but for this they receive more reward in the 
spiritual existence, and by it they are kept from evil and 
improper actions. Explanations are given as to the ex- 
posure of the dead, the knowledge by the soul of the fate 
of the body, the future of the evil and the good. A 
brilliant picture is given of heaven, and a very dark 
one of hell. The sacred thread-girdle is declared to be a 
sign of the service of the sacred beings, a token of sin 
ended, and a presage of beneficence. The sacred cere- 
monial is pleasing to Ormuzd, because it entirely fulfils 
his commands, and produces propitiation of good spirits, 
the increase^of digestiveness, the growth of plants, the 
prosperity of the world, and the proper progress of living 
beings. The proper mode of celebrating the ceremonial 
is described ; but there is little in it that adds to the 
essentials already described, and nothing that is of a 
very lofty or original character. Another The spirit 
Pahlavi book, " Opinions of the Spirit of Wis- of 
dom," is of interest for its expressing the belief wisdom - 
that the "innate wisdom" of Ormuzd, a distinct per- 
sonality created by Ormuzd, produced both the material 
and spirit worlds, and can appear in a personal form and 
give instructions, such as those recorded in the work 
itself. Another similar book is called by its author " The 
Doubt-dispelling Explanation," and defends and expounds 
the dualism of Mazdaism, asserting that other religions 
can only account for the origin of evil by degrading the 
character of the supreme Being, or by supposing a cor- 
rupting influence to be at work, which is really an evil 



276 THE ZOROASTRIAN BOOKS. 

spirit. He makes references to, and attacks the inconsis- 
tencies he finds in Mohammedan, Jewish, Christian, and 
Manichsean doctrine. 

MITHRAISM. 

The recurrence of the name of Mithra in the preceding 
chapters, from page 7 onwards, will already have been 
noted ; and we must now give a brief account of the 
obscure cultus which has been termed Mithraism, which 
some assert to have been the most widespread religious 
system in the Roman empire for some centuries after the 
rise of Christianity, having been even brought into this 
country by the Roman soldiery (see J. M. Robertson in 
" Religious Systems of the World," 1890, pp. 225-248). 
In the Veda, Mithra is twin-god with Varuna ; in 
Zoroaster, he is lord of wide pastures, created by Ahura- 
Mazcla; he was still lord of the heavenly light, and so 
became specially the sun-god, god of light and truth, of 
moral goodness and purity, punishing the Mithra-Druj, 
4 him who lies to Mithra'; hence also he is a judge in 
hell. (S.E., iv. xxiii.) Rawlinson says that Darius 
Hystaspes placed the emblems of Ahura-Mazcla and of 
Mithra in equally conspicuous positions on the sculptured 
tablet above his tomb (b.c. 485) ; and his example was 
followed by later monarchs. The name Mithradates, 
u given by Mithra," so often borne by Eastern monarchs, 
is another testimony to the influence of Mithra. He came 
to be regarded as a sort of intermediate between Ormuzd 
and Ahriman, a mediator eternally young, preserving man- 
kind from the evil one, and performing a mysterious sacri- 
fice, through which the good will triumph ; and in some 
aspects Mithra was regarded as a female deity, and there 
are many Mithraic monuments on which the symbols of 
Mithraic two deities appear, male and female. The 
monuments. Grseco-Roman bas-relief of Mithras slaying a 
bull, in the British Museum, indicates one form of the 
symbolism associated with this god, and connected with 
the idea of sacrifice and purification ; and in other associ- 
ations a ram was slain to Mithra. We learn from Origen 
that the Mithraic mysteries included a complex represen- 



MITHRAIC CEREMONIES. 277 

tation of the movements of the stars and planets, and of 
the disembodied human soul among them. 

Much of the difficulty of comprehending Mithraism 
really is due to its opposition and proscription by early 
Christianity, and to the secrecy with which its worship 
was carried on, largely in caves. There are Antagonism 
many remains of Mithraic altars cut out in of christians, 
rocks, and he was even named " Mithras out of the rock." 
The rites were probably to a large extent derived from 
those of Zoroastrianism. At the vernal equinox, the deity 
appears to have been symbolically mourned as dead, a stone 
image being laid by night on a bier to represent the dead 
god ; and Justin Martyr and Tertullian describe initiation 
and other ceremonies of the worshippers of Mithra, which 
they regarded as imitations of the Christian sacraments. 
We can see in the light of the Greek myth of Persephone, 
that this was no imitation, but an early and widespread 
symbolism of the early death of Nature, and the restored 
life of spring-time. Initiation was an elaborate ordeal, 
including trial by water, by fire, by cold, by hunger, by 
thirst, by scourging, etc. ; and the worshippers Mithraic 
were divided into different grades, called after ceremonies, 
different birds and other animals. Tertullian says that 
the soldier of Mithra was offered a crown, which it was 
his place to refuse, saying Mithra was his crown. Mithra- 
ism seems to have had considerable popularity among the 
later Roman soldiery, and to have been acknowledged by 
the emperors, so that there are many military inscriptions, 
" Deo Soli In vie to Mithrse," — " to the invincible sun-god, 
Mithra." The most usual representation of him depicts a 
young man in Oriental costume kneeling with one knee 011 
a prostrate bull, grasping the head and pulling it back 
with his left hand, while with the right he plunges his 
sword into its neck. A dog, a snake, and a scorpion 
drink the blood flowing from the bull, and the sun and 
moon occupy the two sides of the relief. 

There is much curious speculation and fact bearing 
on Mithra- worship, but the study cannot yet be said to be 
placed on a basis of certainty ; and to say that Christianity 
borrowed largely from Mithraism, is quite unproved. 



CHAPTER XIII. 

The Parsees— Their persecutions— Their principles— A Parsee catechism— 
The priesthood— Devotions of the laity— Festivals -Ceremonial rites- 
Deathbed forms— The towers of silence— Ceremonies of departed souls 
—Family life.— Foundation and consecration of towers. 

THE PABSEES. 

A PEOPLE within a people, liketlie Jews in England, 
the Parsees have attained and maintained an in- 
fluence and wealth far beyond their numerical proportion. 
Their persistence is in its way as strong a testimony to 
the power of heredity as any. The people survive by their 
commercial ability ; their religion survives with them, 
like Judaism with the Jews. Persecution was long their 
Persecution ^ e i both, in Persia and India; the difficulties 
of the of their struggle for existence have fixed their 
Parsees. striking characteristics in a mould more tena- 
cious of life. May we not say that they have largely 
preserved a pure faith in one supreme beneficent God, 
Ormuzd, and believe them when they repudiate the desig- 
nation fire- worshippers, and reject idolatry in all forms? 
Fire they revere, fire is the symbol of their god, and they 
do not treat fire lightly in any circumstances ; indeed, they 
are the only people who universally refrain from tobacco- 
Their smoking, as offending their religious principles, 
principles. B u t they are equally fixed in the determination 
not to defile any of the works of Ormuzd, whether earth, 
water, animals, or plants ; and their practices of cleanli- 
ness and frequent personal ablution must have contributed 

278 



A PARSEE CATECHISM. 279 

greatly to tlieir maintenance in health. The greatest num- 
ber of them is to be found in Bombay ; they are numerous 
in Surat, Ahmedabad, and other cities of Gujerat ; and 
they are to be found in many other cities under British 
Indian rule. Their total number is about 82.000, includ- 
ing 8,000 in Persia (Yezcl, etc.). Their name is derived 
from their original province, Pars, or Fars, from which 
Persia is named. 

The Parsees, or Guebres, of Yezd have still thirty-four 
fire temples great and small, but possess very few books ; 
and till lately were in a very degraded condition and in 
great poverty, being most unjustly treated by their 
Mahometan neighbours ; their condition has, however, 
been mitigated by the persistent efforts of the Parsees of 
Bombay and of the British ministry in Persia. At Baku, 
on the Caspian, they still have fire temples. 

Till recently the pure faith was only preserved by a 
few of the Parsee priests ; and the average priest was 
little but a reciter of portions of the sacred a Parsee 
books and formulas by rote, without under- catechism, 
standing the language in which they were written. Of 
late years a catechism of instruction has been prepared 
for the instruction of Parsee children, from which we 
learn that they are taught that there* is one God, Ormuzd, 
and that Zartusht (Zoroaster) is his true prophet ; that 
the religion of the A vesta was communicated to him by 
God, and that it is true beyond doubt; that God is good, 
and that good deeds are enjoined. All evil and wicked- 
ness are strictly forbidden. Morality is confined within 
three words, pure-thought, pure-word, pure-deed ; truth is 
particularly enjoined. Evil deeds will bring punishment 
after death in hell, and judgment is believed to take 
place on the fourth day after death, determining whether 
the deceased goes to heaven or hell. But a future resur- 
rection is held out as certain, when God only can save 
any one. It is also enjoined upon believers that they 
turn their face towards some luminous object while en- 
gaged in prayer and worship, which must be of frequent 
occurrence in the daj r . Angels are believed in, who aid 
mankind in various ways, and superintend various parts 



28o MODERN PARSEEISM. 

of creation. Prayers are addressed to these spirits. Prayer 
is made that the evil may become virtuous and be pardoned 
by the mercy of Ormuzd. There is no propitiation of the 
evil spirits, or praj r er to them. 

The priesthood is handed down by inheritance from 
father to son, although priests may become laymen. The 

The priest, high priests, or dasturs, are the especial religious 
h00d - authorities, imposing penances and declaring 
doctrine. The ordinary priests, or mobeds, and the lower 
priests, or herbads, complete the religious orders of the 
Parsees. They have a council, or Panchyat, composed of 
six dasturs and twelve mobeds, which settles all the 
joint affairs of the Parsee community. At present the 
condition of the Parsee priesthood is one of progress; two 
•colleges, representing the two sects of the Parsees (marked 
by comparatively unimportant differences), have been 
established, under able teachers; and learned works of 
considerable value bearing on the history and ancient 
texts of their religion have been produced by Parsees 
who have studied at German universities and write 
English with fluency. The Parsee community does not 
make offerings to the priests and to the temples the 
chief or only meritorious work ; but its charitable insti- 
tutions are numerous, and a Parsee beggar is unknown. 

As to the devotional practices of the laity, a man who 
is very religious will say prayers many times a day, 

Devotions albeit in the Avesta language, which he does 

of the laity. no t understand. Prayer may be said on rising 
from sleep, after bathing, and after every operation of 
life, before and after meals, and before going to bed. 
Among the strangest and most repulsive of Parsee prac- 
tices, to western notion, is the habit of rubbing nirang 
(cow's urine) over face and hands, as a specific against 
devas or evil spirits, a prayer or incantation being recited 
at the same time. Devotions at the Parsee fire altars 
are quite optional, and they may be performed 

Festivals. ^ an y time by the worshippers, who usually 
give something to the priests. There is, however, a con- 
siderable attendance at the festivals, about once a week, 
and at special seasons, such as the six days' festival in 



FIRE TEMPLE OF PARSEES, BAKU. 



281 



tlie middle of winter, celebrating the six periods of crea- 
tion, that at the spring equinox in honour of agriculture, 
that to Mitlira, etc. On the tenth day of the eighth 
month there is a festival to Fravardin, who presides over 
the souls of the departed, when special ceremonies for the 




dead are performed, the towers of silence are visited, and 
prayers said for them in the small temples in the grounds ; 
these are in addition to annual celebrations for the dead 
in each house. New Year's Day is both a day of religious 
festival and social intercourse, when the fire-temples are 



282 MODERN PARSEEISM. 

visited and prayers said, looking towards the altar of 
sacred fire. Visits to friends, with ceremonial hand-join- 
ing, follow, and alms are given to the poor. 

The Parsee infant, born on a ground floor, to which he 
is again brought as soon as he is dead, has his nativity 

Ceremonial cast on the seventh day by a Brahman or Parsee 
ri tes. astrologer-priest ; at seven years old he is puri- 
fied with nirang, and invested with the sacred girdle of 
seventy-two threads, representing the seventy-two chap- 
ters of the Yasna. As the priest blesses the child, he 
throws upon its head portions of fruits, spices, and per- 
fumes. This is the ceremony of the Jcusti. Marriages 
are carefully arranged by the astrologer, but are cele- 
brated with a religious ceremony, in which the couple 
are tied together by a silken cord gradually wound round 
them, while a benediction is pronounced in Zend and 

Deathbed Sanskrit. It is in their funerals that the Par- 
forms. S ees are most peculiar. A dying Parsee will 
be attended by a priest, who repeats to him consolatory 
texts from the Avesta, gives him the sacred Haoma juice 
to drink, and prays for the forgiveness of his sins. The 
body is then taken to a ground-floor room from which 
everything has been removed, laid upon stones, washed 
in warm water, dressed in clean white clothes, and laid 
upon an iron bier. The priest, in the presence of the 
corpse, gives an exhortation to the relatives to live pure 
and holy lives, so that they may meet the deceased again 
in paradise. This exhortation consists of the first gatha 
of Zoroaster. A dog is brought in to look at the de- 
ceased, this being known as the sag-did or dog's gaze. 
This used to be looked upon as a means of judging, by 
the dog's instinct, whether life was really extinct ; but 
it is now explained as securing the passage of the soul 
over the Chinvat bridge, over which only the pious pass 
to heaven. The carriage of the body to the towers of 

The towers silence is committed to a special class of Parsees 

of silence. ca lled Nessusalar, or unclean, from the work 
they perform. The towers of silence in Bombay are 
constructed on the top of Malabar Hill, a great home of 
vultures. Built of stone, they rise about twenty-five 



FAMILY LIFE. 283 

feet, with only a small entrance below. On arrival at 
the appointed tower, prayers are said at the neighbouring 
fire-altar. The body is then exposed on a stone platform 
within the tower, so that all fluids pass into a well, into 
which also the bones left by the vultures are „ 
swept. During the three days after death a f departed 
priest constantly prays before a burning fire, souls - 
fed with sandal-wood near the spot where the dead body 
was laid, the soul not being believed to leave this world 
during that period. On the fourth day after death there 
is a further ceremony for the soul of the departed. Con- 
tributions to charities are made in memory of the de- 
ceased, and successive annual, mulct ad, or ceremonies of 
departed souls, keep them in remembrance. 

The well-to-do perform a ceremony every day of the 
first year after a death ; and the last ten days of their year 
are specially set apart for the muktad. One of the rooms 
of the house is specially cleaned and set apart, and every 
morning choice flowers and fruits are placed there, and 
prayers are offered in it by the relatives, not only for the 
dead but for themselves for forgiveness of their past sins. 

Parsees keep their heads covered clay and night, having 
imbibed an idea that it is sinful to be uncovered. Parsee 
women occupy a much higher position than 

• Fa.mil v life 

among Hindus and Mohammedans ; and in 
recent years women have been admitted to meals in 
common with the men. The family life, especially of 
the well-to-do, has much in it that is admirable. The edu- 
cation of women has made great progress among them 
in recent years. Much superstition still exists about the 
significance of particular days, every day having some 
special thing for which it is best suited ; some days for 
beginning a journey, others for choosing a new house, 
others for soliciting a bride, etc. 

The largest tower of silence in Bombay is about ninety 
feet in diameter, or 300 feet in circumference, the outer 
(circular) walls being built of very hard stone, faced with 
white plaster. Inside the tower is a circular platform 
extending to its full circumference, formed of large stone 
slabs, divided into three rows of exposed receptacles for 



234 



MODERN PARSEEISM. 




CONSECRATIOX OF TOWERS. 285 

tlie bodies of tlie dead, diminisliing towards the interior, 
the exterior row being used for men, the middle for 
women, and the inner for children. Each receptacle is 
separated from the others by ridges about an inch high ; 
and channels are cut for the purpose of conveying all 
liquids into a deep hollow, or well, in the centre of the 
tower. u "When the corpse has been completely stripped 
of its flesh by the vultures, which is generally accom- 
plished within one hour at the outside, and when the 
bones of the denuded skeleton are perfectly dried up 
by the powerful heat of a tropical sun, they are thrown 
into this pit, where they crumble into dust." There are 
also four drains leading from the pit to the exterior, open- 
ing into four wells. " At the mouth of each drain char- 
coal and sandstones are placed for purifying the fluid 
before it enters the ground, thus observing one of the 
tenets of the Zoroastrian religion, that " the mother earth 
shall not be defiled." The wells have a permeable bot- 
tom, which is covered with sand to a height of five or 
seven feet. 

The foundation-laying and the consecration of a new 
tower is an occasion of great ceremony. After the ground 
has been marked out and limited with a thread Foundation 
carried round a large number of nails arranged se ^tionof 
in a circle, prayers are offered to Sraosha, the towers, 
guardian deity of the souls of the dead, to Ormuzd, and 
to Spenta Armati, the guardian deity of earth, to de- 
parted souls, and to the seven Amesha-Spentas. These 
prayers, acknowledging that it is wrong to contaminate 
the earth with the bodies of the dead, pray that the en- 
closed space, and no more, may be occupied for depositing 
the bodies of departed souls. At the consecration of a 
dokhma, a trench is dug all round it, and then in the 
centre of the tower two priests perform the Yasna and 
Vendidad prayers and ceremonies in honour of Sraosha 
for three consecutive mornings and nights. On the fourth 
morning there is a prayer in honour of Ormuzd ; and 
afterwards there are similar prayers to those at the 
foundation. Other services outside the tower follow, 
during and after which thousands of Parsees visit the 



286 MODERN PARSEEISM. 

tower, which is afterwards closed to everybody. Some- 
times the towers are erected by public subscription, but 
private persons frequently bear the sole expense, it being 
considered a specially meritorious act to build one. 

Thus, in the midst of antagonistic creeds, persists the 
religion associated with the name of Zoroaster, a standing 
revelation to us of the ideas and worship of long-distant 
ages. Reverence and worship for the great Ormuzd, the 
supreme Being, principally typified by the wondrous fire, 
dread of the evil spirit and anxiety to avoid the evils he 
can bring, and practical charity chiefly characterise this 
most interesting survival from the past. Learned modern 
Parsees maintain and teach that invocations to spirits 
other than the supreme God do not belong to the religion 
as originally established by Zoroaster, and that they may 
all be dispensed with, retaining the belief in one God and. 
in purity of thought, word, and deed. They hold also 
that all their ritual and ceremonies may be altered accord- 
ing to the spiritual state and needs of the community. 

[For tlie best account of the modern Parsees and their present religious 
state, see " History of the Parsees," by Dosabhai Framji Karaka, C.S.I., late 
member of the Bombay Legislative Council. Macmillan, 1884.] 




INDEX. 



Absorption in Deity, 60. 
Abu, Mount, 244. 
Aditi, 7, 13. 
Agni, 12, 13, 16, 24. 
Abriman, 252, 260, 261, 262. 
Ahuras, 253. 
Amesba-Spentas, 256. 
Amitabba, 226, 236. 
Analects of Buddbism, 147, 110. 
Ananda, 130, 131. 
Ancestor worsbip, 47, 113. 
Animal worsbip, 82. 
Animism, 200. 
Anthropomorpbism, 254. 
Arjuna, 59. 
Aryan religions, 1. 

and Zoroastrianism, 253. 
Aryans, 2, 12, 16, 20. 
Asceticism, 35, 49, 78, 230. 
Asba-vabisbta, 256. 
Asoka, King, 176. 
Asvins, 14. 

Atbarva-Veda, 20, 23. 
Atman, 27. 
Avalokitesvara, 206. 
Avatar, 60, 73. 
Avesta, 246, 251, 265, 266, 274. 

B. 

Beal, Prof., Translation of Chivj 

bymn, 226. 
Benares, 96. 
Bbagavad-gita, 59, 62. 
Bba.rata, 63. 
Bible, Tbe Sikb, 106. 
Birtbs, Brabman, 50. 

New, 42, 111, 157. 
Bisbesbwar, 96. 
Bodbidbarma, 222. 
Bodbi-satvas, 205, 208. 
Book of tbe Great Decease, 143. 
Books, Sacred Buddbist, 120. 

Zoroastrian, 265, 273. 
Bo-tree, Worsbip of, 184. 
Brabmanaspati, 14. 



287 



Brabraanism, 2, 21, 22, 23, 25, 27, 29, 
35, 42, 49, 57, 63, 65, 72, 87, 117, 
145. 
Biabmanism of tbe Codes, 31. 
Brabman ceremonies, 44, 46, 66. 

morality, 50. 

penances and penalties, 37- 

pliilosopby, 26. 

Tbe True, 161 . 
Brabmans and Buddba, 134, 140. 

Four orders of, 35. 
Brabmo Sornaj, 106. 
Buddba, Life of, 118, 158. 

travels, 122. 

enlightenment, 122. 

temptation, 123. 

commences bis work, 123. 

Cbaracteristics of, 124. 

Alternate rest and travels of, 125. 

and tbe courtesan Ambapali, 126. 

bis answer to a king, 129. 

and socialism, 129. 

bis principal adherents, 130. 

and Brabmans, 134. 

renunciation, 121, 136. 

bis metbod of teacbing, 136, 137, 
140. 

converts a noble youtb, 138. 

prepares for bis final discourse, 143. 

bis last temptation, 143. 

bis deatb, 144. 

bis funeral, 145. 

Doctrines and moral teacbings of, 
123, 147,151. 

bis personal claims, 157- 

Reverence for, 169. 

Images of, 181, 182, 197, 201. 

Relics of, 184. . 

impression of bis foot, 185, 201. 

Cbinese Life of, 219. 
Buddbas, Solitary, 206. 
Buddhism, 57, 71, 74, 110, 11S-237, 
238. 

Burmese, 189. 

Cbinese, 218. 

Doctrines of, 162-174. 

Esoteric, 174. 

Japanese, 236. 



288 



INDEX. 



Buddhism, Modern, 175-235. 

Precepts of, 71, 122, 130, 151, 158, 
160. 

Reformed sects of, 202. 

Siamese, 201. 

Singhalese, 180. 

Tibetan, 201, 208. 
Buddhist councils, 1G4, 165, 176. 

grades of attainment, 157. 

monks, 128, 151, 157, 162, 1S6, 189, 
215, 229. 

nuns, 131, 172, 230. 

orders, 162-173, 183. 

school, 188. 

scriptures, 120, 116, 158, 185, 221. 

state of abstraction, 156. 
Biihler, Prof., on Manu, 39. 
Bundahish, 274. 
Burial, Burmese, 200. 

Hindu, 113. 

Parsee, 282. 

Siamese, 202. 
Burmese ceremonies, 196. 

monasteries, 190, 192. 

pagodas, 194, 196. 

worship, 196. 
Burning of windows, 116. 



Calendar, Buddhist, 231. 

Car festival, Hindu, 100. 

Caste, 22, 32, 36, 42, 50, 58. 

Catechism, Parsee, 279. 

Causal nexus, 149. 

Causality, Buddhist doctrine of, 150. 

Cave temples, 182. 

Ceremonies, Buddhist, 185. 

Burmese, 196. 

Hindu, 85, 113. 

Mithraie, 277- 

Parsee, 280, 282. 
Ceylon, 185. 

Chaitanya, 70, 76. 97, 104. 
Cbao Phya Phraklang, 202. 
Children, Beliefs about, 202. 
Chinese Buddhism, 218, 224. 
Code of Yajnavalkya, 54. 
Confession and penance, Buddhist, 163. 
Corpse, Customs of Zoroastrians, 268, 

273. 
Cremation, 113, 202. 

D. 

Dadistan-i-Dinik, 275. 

Daevas, 261. 
Dagobas, 184. 
Dalai Lamas, 210. 
Dances, Hindu, 81. 



Dandis, 104. 

Darmesteter on Zoroaster, 251. 

Dead, Ceremonies for the, 113. 

Exposure of, 268, 269, 283, 285. 

Sacrifices for, 46. 
Death, Hindu idea of, 112. 
Deified men, 14, 80. 
Deity, Hindu incarnations of, 60, 63. 
Demons, 80. 
Devadatta, 130. 
Devendra Nath Tagore, 107. 
Dhammapada, 147, 149, 154, 159. 
Dissolution, The final, 264. 
Doctrine of the Mean of Buddhn, 146. 
Do-nothing Buddhist sect, 234. 
Druj, 261. 
Drvants, 261. 

Dualism, Zoroastrian doctrine of, 252. 
Durga, 79, 94. 
Duties of the Four Castes, 42. 

of kings, 49, 
Dyaus, 5, 10. 

Dying, the treatment of, bv Hindus, 
112. 

E. 

Esoteric Buddhism, 174. 
Exorcism, 186. 

F. 

Fa-hien, 178. 
Fasts, 24, 215. 
Fatalism, 110. 
Feasts, Pagoda, 198. 
Festivals, Buddhist, 216. 

Hindu, 92, 94, 100. 

Parsee, 280. 
Filial piety, Brahman, 44. 
Fire-worship, 279. 
Flood, Hindu tradition of, 22. 
Fravashis, 262. 

Future life, Heathen idea of, 15, 203, 
263. 

G. 

Ganesa, 80. 

Ganga, 80. 

Ganges, Hindu superstition about, 112. 

Gathas, 266. 

Gautama, 33, 57, 121, 157, 181, 206. 

Gayatri, 87. 

Geiger, Dr., on Zoroastrianism, 254. 

Geush-urvan, 260. 

God, Hindu conception of, 67- 

Gods of Aryans, 2. 

Hindus, 28, 30, 60, 6G, 69, 72, 76-82. 

Manu, 40. 

Yedas, 2, 3, 7-15. 



INDEX. 



289 



Grand Lamas, 208-212. 
Greater Vehicle, 180, 206. 
Greek religion and Vedic, 2, 6. 
Greeks and the Magi, 247. 
Guru, 85. 

H. 

Hardy, Spence, on Viharas, 181, 185. 
Heaven, The Buddhist, 207. 
Hell, Chinese idea of, 232. 

Hindu, 110. 

in Manu, 42. 
Hermit, The Brahman, 35, 48. 
Hindu doctrines, 119. 

ideals, 40. 

morals, 20, 114, 116. 

pilgrimages, 95. 

religiousness, 84. 

ritual, 34. 

sects, 102. 
Hinduism, Modern, 56, 83. 
Huen-Siang, 178. 

Hunter, Sir W., on Vishnu worship, 66. 
Hymns, Early Vedic, 4-7, 10-18. 

I. 

Ideals, Hindu, 40. 

Images of Buddha, 181, 182, 191, 201, 
224, 225. 

Chinese, 224, 225. 

Hindu, 92, 99. 
Immortality, 22. 

Hindu doctrine of, 62. 

Zoroastrian teaching of, 263. 
" Indian Wisdom," by Monier- 

Williams, 59. 
Indra, 4, 10, 30. 
Institutes of the Sacred Law, 34. 

J. 

Jacobi, Prof., on Mahavira, 239. 

Jagannath, 76, 84, 99. 

Jaimini, 34. 

Jainism, 238. 

Jains, Beliefs of, 241. 

Japanese Buddhism, 236. 

Juggernaut worship, 70. 

K. 

Kabir, 70. 

Panthis, 102. 
Kali,79. 
Kalki avatar, 76. 
Kanishka, 177. 
Karma, 174. 

Keshub Chunder Sen, 108. 
Khshathra-varya, 256. 



King- deification, 49. 
Krishna, 59-62, 76. 
Kshatriya, 42, 43. 
Kullavagga, 171. 
Kumarila, 58. 
Kwan-yin, 225. 

L. 

La-brang, The monastery of, 213. 

Lakshmi, 76. 

Lamas, 208, 210. 

Laos, 202. 

Law of Manu, 37- 

" Lesser Vehicle," 179. 

Linga,72, 79. 

Liturgies, 270. 

Local deities, Hindu, 80. 

M. 

Madvas, 102. 

Magi, 247, 273. 

Mahabharata, 58. 

Mahavagga, 163. 

Mahavira, 240. 

Mahcmetanism, 70, 

Maitreya, 206. 

Manju-sri, 207. 

Manu, 22, 37, 41. 

Mara. 155. 

Marriages, 35, 46, 48, 52, 54, 202, 282. 

Maruts, 10. 

Maya, 110. 

Mazda (see Ahura), 254. 

Mazdaism, Early rites of, 272. 

Miracle-plays, 92. 

Missionary religions, 175. 

Mithraism, 265, 276. 

Mitra, 7, 9, 258, 259, 26S. 

Monasteries, 189, 190, 194, 211, 213, 

230. 
Mongol emperors, 209, 222. 
Monier-Williams, Sir, Quotations from, 

2, 16, 19, 59, 74, 176. 
Monks, Buddhist, 128, 152, 157, 186. 
Monotheism, 18, 73. 
Monuments, Mithraic, 276. 
Mount Abu, 243. 
Muir, Dr., 6, 7, 9. 
Miiller, Max, 2, 17, 26. 

N. 

"Nature- worship, 4. 
Nat-worship, 198. 
Nirvana, 122, 144, 146, 151, 160, 169, 

241. 
Nuns, Buddhist, 131, 172, 231. 
Nyaya, 33. 

U 



290 



INDEX, 



O. 

Oldenburg, Prof., on Buddha, 118, 

129, 130, 156. 
Om, The syllable, 26, 34, 44, 88. 
Order, The Buddhist, 146, 163, 177. 
Orders of Brahmans, 35. 
Origin of things, Vedic, 6. 

of world, 26. 
Ormuzd, 253, 254, 260, 262. 
Outcasts, Brahman, 36. 



Pagahn, The pagodns of, 196. 
Pagodas, Burmese, 195, 196, 198. 

feasts, 
Pahlavi, 247, 274. 
Pali books, 158, 163. 
Panchen Lamas, 210. 
Pantheism, 18, 27, 29, 41. 
Papias on the origin of the Gospels, 

707. 
Papuans, 23, 39. 
Parables, 700. 

Buddhist, 270. 
Parasnath, 244. 
Parsees, 278-281, 284, 286. 
Patriarchs, 220. 
Penance. 37- 
Philosophy, Brahman, 28, 29. 

Sankhya, 33. 

Yedantist, 59. 

Yoga, 34. 
Phon-gyees, 191. 
Pilamas, 181. 
Pilgrimages, 95, 97, 242. 
Pirit, the ceremony, 185. 
Prajapati, 18, 29. 
Prayer cylinders, 214. 

walls and flags, 215. 
Prayers, Brahman, 39. 
Praying by machinery, 213, 215. 
Priests, Buddhist, 186. 

Hindu, 19, 91. 

Parsee, 279. 
Prithivi, 2. 
Punishment, Brahman, 56. 

Future, 17, HO, 149. 
Puranas, 66, 68. 
Puri, 96, 97- 
Purification, 23, 34. 
Pu-sa, 218. 
Pushan, 11. 



E. 



Eama, 63, 74. 
Bamanand, 69. 
!hamanujas, 102. 



Eamayana, 62, 6S. 

Eammohun Eoy, 106. 

Eangoon, The great temple of, 194. 

Eeligion and missions, 176. 

Eewards, 17, 41, 110. 

Eig-Veda, 2, 14, 17-19, 29. 

Eishis, 3. 

Bitual, 34, 46, 47, 66, 87, 90, 214, 216. 

Borne, ancient, Eeligion of, 2, 6. 

S. 

Sacred syllable OM, 26, 34, 44. 

tree, 82. 
Sacrifices, 135. 

Animal, 21. 

for the dead, 46. 

Household, 23. 

Human, 21, 100. 
Sacrificial fires, 24. 
Saktas, 104. 
Sakyamuni, 219. 
Salagram, 72. 
Sama-Yeda, 21. 
Sankara, 64. 
Sankhya, 33. 
Satapatha-Brahmana, 21. 
Savitri, 11. 

Schools, Buddhist, 188, 228. 
Scott, Mr. ("Shway Yoe"), on Bud- 

dhism, 190, 196. 
Scriptures, Buddhist, 120, 158. 

Tibetan, 205. 
Sects, Sivaitic. 104. 

of Yishnu, 102. 
Self- existent, The Upanishad doctrinf 
of the, 27-30, 53. 

-discipline, Buddhist, 154. 

-repression, Hindu, 40. 
Shastras, The six, 32. 
Shayast, 274. 
Shin-shin, 236. 
Shway Dagohn Pay ah, 194. 
Siamese Buddhism, 201. 
Sick, The treatment of, 188. 
Sikh Bible, 106. 
Sikhs, 105. 
Siliditya, 178. 
Singhalese Buddhism, 180. 
Siva, 64, 73, 77, 96. 
Sivaitic sects, 104. 
Smartas, 66. 
Soma, 12. 

Soul, Buddhist doctrine of, 150- 
"Sou; of the Bull," 260, 
Spenta-Armati, 257. 
Spirit of Wisdom, Opinions of, 275. 
Sraosha, 259. 
Storm-gods, Yedic, 10. 



INDEX. 



291 



Sudra, 42. 

Suffering, Buddhist idea of, 123, 139. 

Sun, Brahman idea of, 22. 

gods, 11. 
Supreme Brahman, 65. 
Surya, 11. 
Sutras, 32. 
Suttee, 216. 
Svetasvatara, 29. 



Tantras, 104. 

Tashi Lunpo, 213. 

Temple, The great Rangoon, 194. 

Temples, Burmese, 194, 196. 

Cave, 182. 

Chinese Buddhist, 224, 226. 

Hindu, 90, 96, 97, 101, 107. 

Jain, 242, 244. 

Mongolian, 211. 

at Palitana, 242. 

Rock, 55. 

Siamese, 202. 

Tibetan, 211, 213. 
Tibetan Buddhism, 204, 208, 218. 

Scriptures, 205. 
Tien-tad, 228. 

Towers of Silence, 283, 285. 
Transmigration of souls, 30, 42, 52, 

110. 
Tree worship, 82. 
Triad, Tibetan worship of, 205. 
Tvashtar, 14. 

U. 

Universal Somaj, 110. 
Upanisbais, 25, 27-30. 
Ushas, 12. 



V. 

Vajra-pani, 207. 

Yaiseshika, 33. 

Vaisya, 42. 

Varuna, 7, 9. 

Yassa, 185. 

Vayu, 259. 

Yeda, 2, 35, 41, 44. 

Vedanta, 34. 

Vedic deities, 4, 7-14. 

hymns, 4-6, 10-13, 16. 

literature, 31. 

religion, 1, 253. 



"Vehicles, The Greater" and "The 

Lesser," 179, 206. 
Vendidad, 267. 
Yestal virgins, 429. 
Yiharas, 181, 188. 
Yirokana, 29. 
Yishnu, 15, 60, 61, 66, 68, 74. 

Purana, 66. 

sects, 102. 

Temple of, 101. 
Yispered, 270. 
Yisvakarman, 18. 
Yohu-mano, 257. 

W. 

Whitnev, Prof., on the Yedic religion, 

3, 12. 
Widows, Hindu, 216. 
Wilson, H. H., on Hindus, 117. 

on Yishnu Purana, 67. 
Woman, Buddhist, 131. 

Hindu, 36, 47, 114. 

Parsee, 283. 
World, Origin of, 26. 
Wu-wei-Kian, 234. 

Y. 

Yajnavalkva, 54. 

Yajur-veda, 20. 

Yama, 15. 

Yasa and Buddha, 139. 

Yasna, 255, 270. 

Yatis, 245. 

Yatus, 261. 

Yazatas, 257- 

Yoga philosophy, 34. 

Yogis, 104. 

Z. 

Zend-avesta, 246. 
Zoroaster, 246-264. 

Mythical development of, 250. 

Miracles attributed to, 251. 

Contrary opinions about, 251. 

Doctrines of, 252. 
Zoroastrian books, 356, 274. 

conception of Deity, 256. 

doctrines of good and evil, 260-263. 

hymns, 258. 

liturgies, 270. 
Zoroastrianism, and early Aryan reli- 
gions, 253. 

and Yedic religions, 253. 



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